Sources from Encyclopædia Iranica About ( Aimaq oymak ایماق )
AYMĀQ
Certainly, six thousand years of history go back to prehistoric times and the beginnings of great human civilizations, such as Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, and other ancient cultures. During this period, human societies gradually moved from nomadic lives to settled, agricultural settlements, and more complex civilizations emerged.
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(Turk. Oymaq), a term designating tribal peoples in Khorasan and Afghanistan, mostly semi-nomadic or semi-sedentary, in contrast to the fully sedentary, non-tribal population of the area.
AYMĀQ (Turk. OYMAQ), a term designating tribal peoples in Khorasan and Afghanistan, mostly semi-nomadic or semi-sedentary, in contrast to the fully sedentary, non-tribal population of the area. The local dialects of the Aymāq are very close either to the Fārsī of east Khorasan province or to the Herātī idiom of Fārsī Darī. The Čār Aymāq in western Afghanistan live in contiguous areas from Bādḡīs, north of Herat, to the south of Ḡūr. Their habitat is drained by the headwaters of the Ḵoškāb, Harī-rūd, Morḡāb, and Farāh-rūd. From northwest to southwest they comprise 40,000 Jamšīdī, 60,000 Aymāq-Hazāra, 100,000 Fīrūzkūhī, and 180,000 Taymanī.
These tribes are ethnic formations of the 10th/16th and 11th/17th centuries; their grouping as four is in consequence a more recent administrative measure. There is consensus as to the composition of this grouping, among its members as well as among the other Aymāq. Ethnic groups of Iranian, Čaḡatāy, Uzbek, Qepčāq, Eastern Turkic, Arab, and other origins have been unified by chiefs who originated outside their area. Among the Jamšīdī it was a branch of the Kayānī from Sīstān (tracing descent to the legendary hero Jamšīd, whence the tribal name has been derived), who had been invested as “Wardens of the Marches” in Bādḡīs by Shah ʿAbbās II (Taḏkerat al-molūk, tr. V. Minorsky, p. 16). A Kākaṛ Pashtun from Baluchistan, Tayman, formed a coalition in Ḡūr around 1650 (Historical and Political Gazetteer of Afghanistan III, Graz, 1975, p. 260; Baluchistan District Gazetteer I, Bombay, 1907, p. 69). The traditional chiefs of the northern Fīrūzkūhī, Zay Ḥākem, claim descent from Ačakzay Pashtun ancestors, whereas the tribe takes its name from Fīrūzkūh, the capital of the Ghurid dynasty. After the downfall of the Safavid power and during the struggle for Herat in the 12th/18th and 13th/19th centuries, Bādḡīs was haunted by marauding Turkmen; and all Aymāq at one time or another were involved in these international affairs. Changing intra-tribal coalitions and opportunistic siding with either of the contending powers resulted in intertribal feuds which facilitated the centralizing efforts of Amīr ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān at the end of the 13th/19th century and led to the breakdown of the power of tribal aristocracies. A new type of charismatic leader arose whose descendants still are of paramount importance in local politics. Members of the former aristocracy are still high ranking in prestige, holding government positions at various levels.
The events of the past 200 years forced the northern Aymāq to lead a nomadic life. The Jamšīdī, forcibly moved from one exile to the other, became indistinguishable from Turkmen in their way of life (Yate, Northern Afghanistan, p. 122). During this period, small groups of Aymāq-Hazāra and Jamšīdī settled in Persian Khorasan and Turkmenistan. (They now number about 2,000.) At the base of social organization, the extended family is still intact, functioning as a patriarchal household and also as a minimal economic unit. The tribes are segmented patrilineally into ṭāʾefas, the larger ones subdivided into awlād, most frequently bearing the name of the fictitious founder or of the place of origin. There are 68 Jamšīdī ṭāʾefas, 39 Aymāq-Hazāra, 44 Fīrūzkūhī, and 101 Taymanī. As far as their history can be traced, tribal unity never existed. Political power at the local level was maintained by coalitions based on marriage allegiances of the ṭāʾefa chiefs. This pattern still prevails. Jamšīdī and Aymāq-Hazāra may be classed as semi-sedentary whereas Fīrūzkūhī and Taymanī are semi-nomadic. All the tribes use temporary housing during the summer season at varying degrees. In Bādḡīs water and appropriate soil for irrigated agriculture are plentiful, and dry farming is also practiced. Conditions for herding are optimal, since the cattle can be kept grazing all year round (de Planhol, “La frontière,” pp. 1-16). Together with carpet weaving, these activities permit the production of a considerable surplus that can be sold at the markets of Herat and Qaḷʿa-ye Now. The narrow defiles of Ḡūr provide only limited space for irrigated agriculture, and, due to scarce and irregular rainfalls, yields from dry-farming are poor. Severe winters with heavy snows limit the number of cattle.
Other semi-sedentary, semi-nomadic or nomadic Aymāq in western Afghanistan, chiefly in Herat province, are the Ḡalmanī (600), Malekī (12,000), Mīšmast (5,000), Sīāmūsā (300), Ṭāherī (17,000), Tīmūrī (33,000), and Zūrī (15,000). Another 25,000 Tīmūrī, descendants of nineteenth-century immigrants, live in Iranian Khorasan. They have incorporated small groups of Jamšīdī and Zūrī. Some now fully sedentary ethnic groups consider themselves, and are classified by the Herātī, as Aymāq: Bādḡīsī (1,000), Čengīzī (6,000), Čaḡatāy (2,000), Dāmanregī (200), Ḡōrī (1,000), Kākerī (1,000), Maraydār (200), Mobarī (1,500), Qepčāq (17,000), and Ḵamedī (200). All of them have preserved their ethnic identity; but linguistically, economically, and in social structure and religion, they are fully assimilated to the Sunnite population of western Afghanistan. The Tīmūrī, once the most powerful of the “lesser” Aymāq, had their original homeland in western Bādḡīs. Besides those still living there or in Khorasan, there are settled Tīmūrī south of Herat and near Šendand, as well as to the north of Ḡaznī in Shiʿite Hazāra country. A group of Pashtunized nomadic Tīmūrī has its winter quarters near Baḡlān in northeastern Afghanistan. Some of the best qualities of “Herat Baluch” carpets are woven by Tīmūrī in Bādḡīs, classified by the name of the respective ṭāʾefa such as Kawdanī, Šērḵānī, Yaʿqūbḵānī, or Zakanī.
C. E. Yate, Northern Afghanistan, or Letters from the Afghan Boundary Commission, Edinburgh and London, 1888.
A. A. Semenov, Dzhemshidy i ikh strana, Izvestiya turkestanskogo otdela russkogo geograficheskogo obshchestva 16, 1923.
W. Ivanov “Notes on the Ethnology of Khurasan,” The Geographical Journal 67, 1926, pp. 143-58.
E. G. Gafferberg, “Formy braka i svadebnye obryady u Dzhemshidov i Khazare,” Sovetskaya Etnografiya 1, 1936.
Idem, “Zhilishche Dzhemshidov Kushkinskogo rayona,” ibid., 4, 1948, pp. 124-43.
N. A. Kislyakov and A. I. Pershits, Narody Peredneĭ Azii, Moscow, 1957, pp. 124-33.
A. Janata, “Die Bevölkerung von Ghor. Beiträge zur Ethnographie der Aimaq,” Archiv für Völkerkunde 17-18, 1962-63, pp. 73-156.
H. F. Schurman, The Mongols of Afghanistan. An Ethnography of the Moghôls of Afghanistan, The Hague, 1962.
K. Ferdinand, “Ethnographical Notes on Chahār Aimāq, Hazāra and Moghōl,” Acta Orientalia 28, 1964, pp. 175-203.
M. Kuhn, A Report on Village Society in the Chakhcharan District of Afghanistan, M.A. thesis, London University, SOAS, 1970.
A. Janata, “Völkerkundliche Forschungen in Westafghanistan,” Bustan 2-3, 1970, pp. 50-61.
Idem, “On the Origin of the Firuzkuhis in Western Afghanistan,” Archiv für Völkerkunde 25, 1971, pp. 57-65.
G. Mandersloot and J. Powell, Firozkohi, een afghaans reisjournaal, Rotterdam, 1971.
M. Barry, Western Afghanistan’s Outback, USAID, Afghanistan, 1972.
A. Singer, “The Jamshīdī of Khurasan: An Historical Note,” Iran 10, 1972, pp. 151-55.
X. de Planhol, “Sur la frontière turkmène de l’Afghanistan,” Revue géographique de l’est, 1973, 1-2, pp. 1-16.
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ETHNOGRAPHY (Bibliography)
For cited works not given in detail, see “Short References.” Priority has been given to coverage of ethnographic data based on long-term participant observation, but other ethnographically significant sources are also listed, including some based on shorter works, some by travelers from before the emergence of professional ethnography, and some from scholars trained in related fields such as folklore, linguistics and cultural geography.
For cited works not given in detail, see “Short References”; see also the bibliography in ANTHROPOLOGY, where a large proportion of the ethnographic publication on Iran, in particular the major works of anthropologists writing before 1985, has already been given and is not duplicated here. Bibliographic details of work cited above should be sought there as well as in the following listing, which both updates it (to 1997) and extends its coverage to the full range of ethnographic work. Since the boundaries between what is strictly speaking ethnographic and work based on other research methods are not always clear, the criteria for inclusion lack precision. Priority has been given to coverage of ethnographic data based on long-term participant observation, but other sources judged to be ethnographically significant are also listed, including some based on work of shorter duration, some by travelers from before the emergence of professional ethnography, and some from scholars trained in related fields such as folklore, linguistics and cultural geography. Unpublished dissertations are cited only where they are known to contain significant data that have not been published. Works dealing exclusively with Turkic, Hindu, or other non-Iranian communities have generally been omitted, even though they fall within the larger “culture area” defined by the historical use of Persian as the koine of literacy and bureaucracy in Western Asia, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and South Asia, especially where the author pays no attention to any Iranian cultural features or context. Partly for the same reason only a small selection of Russian sources is included—an independent and important ethnographic tradition, but one which for the most part did not foster longterm participant observation. However, some Russian (Soviet) and other bibliographies have been included which do cover most work in Russian. With regard to Persian sources, it would be impractical to list all published work that includes material based on first-hand observation. The most useful criterion for these sources (apart from evidence of significant participant observation) was therefore defined as evidence of professional ethnographic objectives. Works dealing exclusively with language or music are listed elsewhere. Finally it is worth noting that because of an increasing preoccupation with theory, recent ethnographic writing, whether in the form of articles or monographs, often appears in the form of abbreviated cases designed to support theoretical arguments, rather than extended descriptions.
M. Afkhami and E. Friedl, eds., In the Eye of the Storm: Women in Post-revolutionary Iran, Syracuse N. Y., 1994. N. Afšār-Nāderī, “Fīlm-e mardom-æenāsī, yā negāhī be fīlm-e ʿalaf,” in Farhang o zendagī 13-14, 1353 Š./1974, pp. 26-31. N. Afšār-Nāderī, A. Ašraf, H. Kešāvarz, K. Ḵosrāvī, and M. Mohājerānī, Goẕāreš-e barrasī-e moqaddamatī wa ṭarḥ wa moṭāleʿa-ye āyanda dar īlāt-e Kohgīlūya wa Boyer Aḥmad, Majmūʿa-ye monogrāfīhā-ye Kohgīlūya, Tehran, 1345 Š./1966. N. Afšār-Nāderī, H. Kešāvarz, and J. Ṣafīnežād, Sūq-e Ṭayyebī, Majmūʿa-ye monogrāfīhā-ye Kohgīlūya, Tehran, 1347 Š./1968. N. Afšār-Nāderī, H. Kešāvarz, Ḥ. Pārsā, ʿA. Raḵš-e Ḵoršīd, and J. Ṣafīnežād, Jamʿīyat o šenās-nāma-ye īlāt-e Kohgīlūya, Majmūʿa-ye monogrāfīhā-ye Kohgīlūya, Tehran, 1347 Š./1968. Ī. Afšār-e Sīstānī, ʿAšāyer o Ṭawāʾef-e Sīstān o Balūčestān, Tehran, 1370 Š./1991. A. S. Ahmed, Social and Economic Change in the Tribal Areas 1972-1976, Karachi, 1977. Idem, “Lineage Politics and Economic Development, a Case Study from the North West Frontier Province, Pakistan,” in S. Pastner and L. Flam, eds., Anthropology in Pakistan: Recent Socio-cultural and Archaeological Perspectives, Ithaca, N.Y., 1982, pp. 40-50. Idem, Religion and Politics in Muslim Society, Cambridge, England, 1983; republished as Resistence and Control in Pakistan, London, 1991. Idem, “Tribes and States in Waziristan,” in R. Tapper, ed., The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan, London, 1984, pp. 192-211. Idem, Pakistan Society, Karachi, 1986. Idem, “The Mulla of Waziristan, Leadership and Islam in a Pakistani District,” in K. Ewing, ed., Shariʿat and Ambiguity in South Asian Islam, Berkeley, 1988, pp. 180-202. Idem, “Islam and the District Paradigm: Emergent Trends in Contemporary Muslim Society,” in T. Madan, ed., Muslim Communities of South Asia: Culture, Society, and Power, New Delhi, 1995, pp. 63-102. E. ʿAjamī, Šešdāngī, Shiraz, 1969. Idem, “The Boneh System in Iran’s Rural Society,” Iran Nameh 13, 1995, pp. 503-22. S. Akiner, ed., Cultural Change and Continuity in Central Asia, London, 1991. H. Alavi, “The Two Biraderies: Kinship in Rural West Punjab,” in T. Madan, ed., Muslim Communities of South Asia: Culture, Society, and Power, New Delhi, 1995, pp. 1-62. N. Allen, Men and Crops in the Central Hindukush, Ph.D. diss., Syracuse University, 1978. S. Amanolahi (Amānallāhī), “The Baharvand, Former Pastoralists of Iran,” Ph.D. diss., Rice University, 1975. Idem, Manzelat-e zan dar ejtemāʿ-e ʿašāyerī: Ṭāyefa-ye Darra Šūrī, Īl-e Qašqāʾī, Tehran, 1354 Š./1975. Idem, Tribes of Iran, I: The Tribes of Luristan, Bakhtiari, Kuh Gilu and Mamasani, New Haven, 1988. Idem, Kūčnešīnī dar Īrān: pažūheš darbāra-ye ʿašāyer va īlāt, Tehran, 1360 Š./1981. J. Amighi, The Zoroastrians of Iran: Conversion, Assimilation, or Persistence, New York, 1990. Idem, “Qawm-e Lor, pažūhešī darbāra-ye peyvastagī-e qawmī wa parākandagī-e jogrāfīāʾī-e Lorhā dar Īrān,” Tehran, 1370/1992. H. Amoss, “Dari-Zul: ‘Village in Transition’,” in American Historical Anthropology: Essays in Honor of Leslie Spier, Carbondale, Il., 1967, pp. 23-36. E. W. Anderson and N. H. Dupree, eds., The Cultural Basis of Afghan Nationalism, London, 1990. J. W. Anderson, “Social Structures and the Veil, Comportment and the Composition of Interaction in Afghanistan,” Anthropos 77, 1980, pp. 397-420. Idem, “How Afghans Define Themselves in Relation to Islam,” in M. N. Shahrani and R. L. Canfield, eds., Revolutions and Rebellions in Afghanistan, Anthropological Perspectives, Berkeley, 1984, pp. 266-88. Idem, “Khan and Khel, Dialectics of Pakhtun Tribalism,” in R. Tapper, ed., The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan, London, 1984, pp. 119-49. Idem, “Sentimental Ambivalence and the Exegesis of ‘Self’ in Afghanistan,” Anthropological Quarterly 58, 1985, pp. 203-11. Idem, “Popular Mythologies and Subtle Theologies: The Phenomenology of Muslim Identity in Afghanistan,” in P. P. Chock and J. R. Wyman, eds., Discourse and the Social Life of Meaning, Washington, 1986, pp. 169-84. J. W. Anderson and R. Strand, eds., Ethnic Processes and Intergroup Relations in Contemporary Afghanistan, Afghanistan Council of the Asia Society, Occasional Paper 15, New York, 1978. M. S. Andreev, Po etnografii Afghanistana (On the ethnography of Afghanistan), Tashkent, 1927 and 1932. Idem, Materialy po Etnografii Yagnoba (Materials on the ethnography of Yagnob), Dushanbe, 1970. P. A. Andrews, “The White House of Khurasan: The Felt Tents of the Iranian Yomut and Göklen,” Iran 11, 1973, pp. 93-110. Idem, “Ālāčīq and Kūma” Mardom-æenāsī o farhang-e ʿāmma-ye Īrān 3, 2536=1356 Š./1977, pp. 19-45. Idem, Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, Wiesbaden, 1989. M. and P. Andrews, Turkmen Needlework, Dressmaking and Embroidery among the Turkmen of Iran, London, 1976. M. T. Ashouri, “La poterie artisanale au Gilan,” Ph.D. diss., Aix-en-Provence, 1977. M. G. Aslanov, E. G. Gafferberg, N. A. Kisliakov, K. L. Badykhina, and G. P. Vasilyeva, “Ethnography of Afghanistan: A Russian Study,” in G. Grassmuck, L. W. Adamec, and F. H. Irwin, eds., Afghanistan, Some New Aproaches, Ann Arbor, 1969, pp. 1-11. ʿA.-R. Āyatallāhī, Īlāt o ašāyer-e Fārs, Shiraz, 1357 Š./1978. W. Azoy, Buzkashi, Game and Power in Afghanistan, Philadelphia, 1982.
E. Bacon, “An Inquiry into the History of the Hazara Mongols of Afghanistan,” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 7, 1951, pp. 230-47. Idem, “The Hazara Mongols of Afghanistan: A Study in Social Organization,” Ph.D. diss., University of California, 1951. Idem, “Problems Related to Delimiting the Culture Areas of Asia,” Society for American Archaeology Memoirs 9, 1953, pp. 17-23. Idem, Central Asians under Russian Rule: A Study in Culture Change, Ithaca, N.Y., 1966. M. Bahmanbeygī, ʿOrf wa ʿādat dar ʿašāyer-e Fārs, Shiraz, 1324 Š./1945. Idem, “Moeurs et coutumes des tribus du Fars,” and “Annexe sur les Kuh-Giluye,” in V. Monteil, ed., Les Tribus du Fars et la sédentarisation des nomades, Paris, 1966, pp. 97-154. A. Balikci, “Village Buzkashi,” Afghanistan Journal 5, 1978, pp. 11-21. Idem, “Tenure and Transhumance: Stratification and Pastoralism among the Lakenkhel,” in J. Galaty and D. Johnson, The World of Pastoralism, New York, 1990. D. Balland, “Vie sédentaire tadjik, les immigrants Pachtoun dans le sillon de Ghazni (Afghanistan oriental),” Bulletin de l’Association des Géographes Français 51, 1974, pp. 171-80. Idem, “Contraintes écologiques et fluctuations historiques de l’organisation tribale en Afghanistan,” in Production pastorale et société 11, 1982, pp. 55-67. Idem, “Contribution à l’étude du changement d’identité ethnique chez les nomades d’Afghanistan,” in Digard, 1988, pp. 139-55. Idem, “Réflexions d’un géographe sur une décennie de recherches françaises en Afghanistan (1968-1978),” in C. Rathjens, ed., Neue Forschungen in Afghanistan, Opladen, Germany, 1981, pp. 163-77. D. Balland and A. de Benoist, “Nomades et semi-nomades Baluc d’Afghanistan,” Revue Géographique de l’Est 22, 1982, pp. 144-77. D. Balland and C. Kieffer, “Nomadisme et sécheresse en Afghanistan: L’example des nomades Paštun du Dašt-e Nāwor,” in Équipe Écologie et Anthropologie des Sociétés pastorales, ed., Pastoral Production and Society/Production pastorale et société, Cambridge and Paris, 1979, pp. 75-90. A. Banuazizi and M. Weiner, eds., The State, Religion and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan, Syracuse, 1986. T. Barfield, ed., The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China, Cambridge, 1989. Idem, The Nomadic Alternative, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1993. F. Barth, Indus and Swat Kohistan: An Ethnographic Survey, Oslo, 1956. Idem, “Ecologic Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Swat, North Pakistan,” American Anthropologist 58, 1956, pp. 1079-89. Idem, “The System of Social Stratification in Swat, North Pakistan,” in E. Leach, ed., Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan, Cambridge, 1960, pp. 113-46. Idem, “Socio-economic Changes and Social Problems in Pastoral Lands: Some Concrete Factors,” in International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Ecological Guidelines for the Use of Natural Resources in the Middle East and South West Asia, Morges, Switzerland, 1976, pp. 74-80. Idem, “Swat Pathans Reconsidered,” in F. Barth, ed., Features of Person and Society in Swat, London, 1981, pp. 121-81. Idem, The Last Wali of Swat, New York, 1985. M.-E. Bāstānī-Pārīzī, Wadī-e Haftvād, Tehran, 1355 Š./1976. J. Bauer, “Changes in the Behavior and Consciousness of Iranian Women,” Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1981. Idem, “New Models and Traditional Networks, Migrant Women in Tehran,” in J. Fawcett, S. Khoo, and P. C. Smith, eds., Women in the Cities of Asia, Migration and Urban Adaption, Boulder, Colo., 1984, pp. 269-93. Idem, “Sexuality and the Moral ‘Construction’ of Women in an Islamic Society,” Anthropological Quarterly 58, 1985, pp. 120-29. M. Bāvar, Kūhgīlūya wa īlāt-e ān, Tehran, 1324 Š./1945. L. Bazin, “Les turcophones d’Iran: aperçus ethno-linguistiques,” in Digard, 1988, pp. 43-54. M. Bazin, La vie rurale dans la région de Qom (Iran central), Paris, 1974. Idem, “Les bazars saisonniers de montagne dans le Taleš,” in G. Schweizer, ed., Beiträge zur Geographie oriental ischer Städte und Märkte, Wiesbaden, 1977, pp. 201-11. Idem, “Le culte des arbres et des montagnes dans le Tâleš (Iran du Nord-Ouest),” in Quand le crible était dans la paille . . . Hommage à P. N. Boratav, Paris, 1978, pp. 95-104. Idem, “Recherche des rapports entre diversité dialectale et géographie humaine, l’exemple du Ṭāleš,” in G. Schweizer, ed., Interdisziplinäre Iran-Forschung: Beiträge aus Kulturgeographie, Ethnologie, Soziologie und Neuerer Geschichte, Wiesbaden, 1979, pp. 1-15. Idem, Le Talech: Une région ethnique au nord de l’Iran, Paris, 1980. Idem, “Finalité et méthode du Programme d’Établissement de Cartes Ethnographiques de l’Iran,” in J.-P. Angrand and G. Peugniez, eds., Concevoir, produire, diffuser des cartes,Colloque d’Aix-en-Provence 24-25 septembre 1981, Aix-en-Provence, 1983, pp. 139-62. Idem, “Ethnies et groupes socio-professionnels dans le nord de l’Iran,” in Digard, 1988, pp. 77-88. M. Bazin and C. Bromberger, Gilan et Azarbayjan oriental: Cartes et documents ethnographiques, Paris and Tehran, 1982.
H. Beattie, “Kinship and Ethnicity in the Nahrin Area of Northern Afghanistan,” Afghan Studies 3/4, 1982, pp. 39-51. L. Beck, “The Qashqaʾi of Iran,” Cultural Survival Quarterly 8, 1984, pp. 19-22. Idem, The Qashqa’i of Iran, New Haven, Conn., 1986. Idem, Nomad, A Year in the Life of a Qashqa’i Tribesman in Iran, Berkeley, 1990. Idem “Tribes and the State in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-century Iran,” in P. Khoury and J. Kostiner, eds., Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, Berkeley, 1990, pp. 185-225. Idem, “Civil Society in Iran, The Case of the Tribes,” in Iran Nameh 13, 1995, pp. 523-56. L. Beck and N. Keddie, eds., Women in the Muslim World, Cambridge, Mass., 1978. L. Beck and N. Keddie, The Qashqa’i People of Southern Iran, UCLA Museum of Cultural History Pamphlet Series Number 14, Los Angeles, 1981. W. Beeman, “The Hows and Whys of Persian Style, a Pragmatic Approach,” in R. Fasold and R. Shuy, eds., Studies in Language Variation, Washington, 1977, pp. 269-82 Idem, Culture, Performance and Communication in Iran, Tokyo, 1982. Idem, Language, Status and Power in Iran, Bloomington, In., 1986. Idem, “Images of the Great Satan: Representations of the United States in the Iranian Revolution,” in Keddie, 1983, pp. 191-217. Idem, “Dimensions of Dysphoria, the View from Linguistic Anthropology,” in A. Kleinman and B. Good, eds., Culture and Depression, Studies in the Anthropology and Cross-Cultural Psychiatry of Affect and Disorder, Berkeley, 1985, pp. 216-43. Idem, “Affectivity in Persian Language Use,” Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 12, 1988, pp. 9-30. W. Beeman and A. Bhattacharyya, “Toward an Assessment of the Social Role of Rural Midwives and its Implications for the Family Planning Program, an Iranian Case Study,” Human Organization 37, 1978, pp. 295-300. F. Behforūz, Bīābān: pažūhešī dar masāken-e rūstāʾī-e menṭaqa-ye bīābānī-e šarq-e Kāšān, Abūzaydābād wa rūstāhā-ye manẓūma-ye ān, Tehran, 1978. K. G. Behzadi, “Interpersonal Conflict and Emotions in an Iranian Cultural Practice, Qahr and Ashti,” Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 18, 1994, pp. 321-59. S. Bekhradnia, “Zoroastrianism in Contemporary Iran,” International Journal of Moral and Social Studies 6/2, 1991, pp. 117-34. Idem, “The Decline of the Zoroastrian Priesthood and its Effect on the Iranian Zoroastrian Community in the Twentieth Century,” Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford 23, 1992, pp. 37-47. H. Bellew, From the Indus to the Tigris, London, 1874. Idem, A General Report on the Yusufzais, Lahore, 1864, reprinted Lahore, 1977. Idem, The Races of Afghanistan, London, 1880. Idem, An Inquiry into the Ethnography of Afghanistan, London, 1891. J. C. Berland, “Peripatetic, Pastoralist and Sedentist Interaction in Complex Societies,” Nomadic Peoples 4, 1979, pp. 6-8. Idem, No Five Fingers are Alike: Cognitive Amplifiers in Social Context, Cambridge, Mass., 1982. Idem, “Behind Cloth Walls,” Natural History, May 1983, pp. 51-58. A. Betteridge, “Muslim Women and Shrines in Shiraz,” in S. Palmer, ed., Mormons and Muslims: Spiritual Foundations and Modern Manifestations, Provo, Utah, 1983, pp. 127-38. Idem, “Ziarat, Pilgrimage to the Shrines of Shiraz,” Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1985. Idem, “Gift Exchange in Iran, the Locus of Self-identity in Social Interaction,” Anthropological Quarterly 58, 1985, pp. 190-202. Idem, “Women and Shrines in Shiraz,” in D. L. Bowen and E. A. Early, eds., Everyday Life in the Muslim Middle East, Bloomington, Ind., 1993, pp. 239-47.
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U. Fabietti, “Present Status of the Peoples of the Lower Basin of the Kol River (Bandar Abbas Province),” and “Signs and Meanings: Clothing and Personal Adornment as Cultural Expression,” in Piacentini 1984, pp. 9-40, 97-116. Idem, “Power Relations in Southern Baluchistan: A Comparison of Three Ethnographic Cases,” Ethnology 31, 1992, pp. 89-102. U. Fabietti and P. C. Salzman, eds., The Anthropology of Tribal and Peasant Pastoral Societies, Como and Padua, Italy, 1996. G. Fazel, “Economic Organization and Change among the Boir Ahmad, a Nomadic Pastoral Tribe of Southwest Iran,” Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1971. Idem, “Economic Bases of Political Leadership among Pastoral Nomads, The Boyr Ahmad of Southwest Iran,” in M. B. Leons and F. Rothstein, eds., New Directions in Political Economy, An Approach from Anthropology, Westport, Greenwood Press, 1979. Idem, “Tribes and State in Iran: From Pahlavi to Islamic Republic,” in H. Afshar, ed., Iran, A Revolution in Turmoil, Albany, 1985. C. G. Feilberg, “Contributions to the History of Some Oriental Bazaar Crafts,” Nationalmuseets Skrifter, Etnografisk Raekke I, Copenhagen, 1941, pp. 69-89. Idem, “Quanaterne, Irans underjordiske Vandingskanaler,” in Ost og Vest, Afhandlinger tilegnede Dr. phil. Arthur Christensen paa Halvfjerdsaarsdagen d. 9. Januar 1945 af nordiske orientalister og Folkemindeforskere, Copenhagen, 1945, pp. 105-13. K. Ferdinand, Preliminary Notes on Hazara Culture, Copenhagen, 1959. Idem, “Afghanistans Nomader,” Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark, Copenhagen, 1956, pp. 61-70. Idem, “The Baluchistan Barrel-vaulted Tent and its Affinities,” Folk 1, 1959, pp. 27-50. Idem, “Les nomades,” in J. Humlum, ed., Géographie de l’Afghanistan, Copenhagen, 1959, pp. 277-89. Idem, “The Baluchistan Barrel-vaulted Tent: Supplementary Material from Iranian Baluchistan and Sistan,” Folk 2, 1960, pp. 33-50. Idem, “Ethnographic Notes on the Chahar Aimaq, Hazara and Moghol,” Acta Orientalia 28, 1964, pp. 175-203. Idem, “Nomadism in Afghanistan,” in L. Foeldes, 1969, pp. 127-160. Idem, “Marriage Amongst Pakhtun Nomads of the Kabul Laghman Area and Matrimonial Songs with an Analysis of Cast-material Concerning Marriage Ties,” Pašto Quarterly 2, 1978, pp. 126-33. J. P. Ferrier, Caravan Journeys and Wanderings in Persia, Afghanistan, Turkistan, and Beloochistan, London, 1856. H. Field, Camel Brands and Graffiti from Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Iran, and Arabia, Supplements to the Journal of the American Oriental Society 15, New Haven, 1952. M. Fischer, “Islam and the Revolt of the ‘Petite Bourgeoisie’,” Daedalus 111, 1982, pp. 101-25. Idem, “Towards a Third World Poetics: Seeing Through Short Stories and Films in the Iranian Culture Area,” in Knowledge and Society, Studies in the Sociology of Culture Past and Present, A Research Annual 5, 1984, pp. 171-241. Idem, “Ethnicity and the Post-modern Arts of Memory,” inJ. Clifford and G. Marcus, eds., Writing Culture,The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, Berkeley, 1986, pp. 194-233.
L. Földes, ed., Viehwirtschaft und Hirtenkultur, ethnographische Studien, Budapest, 1969. P. Fontaine, “Note sur l’évaluation qualitative des tapis dans la région d’Arak (Iran central),” Objet et Mondes 22, 1982a, pp. 19-24. Idem, “La teinture en Iran central, permanence et mutations,” L’Ethnographie 78/86, 1982b, pp. 19-29. Idem, “L’artisanat du tapis dans la region d’Arak (Iran central),” Ph.D. diss., Aix-en-Provence, 1983. F. Fornara, “Notes on the nomadic peoples of Harmuzgan,” in Piacentini 1984, pp. 41-58. E. Franz, “Zur gegenwartigen Verbreitung und Gruppierung der Turkmenen in Afghanistan,” Baessler-Archiv 20, 1972, pp. 191-238. Idem, “Ethnographische Skizzen zur Frage der Turkmenen in Afghanistan,” Orient 4, 1972, pp. 175-84. Idem, “Die Mauri bei Herat, Bemerkungen zu einer kleinen Volksgruppe in Afghanistan,” Sociologus 29, 1979, pp. 168-77. Idem, Minderheiten im Iran: Dokumentation zur Ethnographie und Politik, Hamburg, 1981. J. Frembgen, Religiöse Funktionsträeger in Nuristan, Sankt Augustin, Germany, 1983. E. Friedl, “Boir Ahmad Mockery: A Research Note,” Iranian Studies 10, 1977, pp. 281-86. Idem, “Islam and Tribal Women in a Village in Iran,” in N. F. and R. Gross, eds., Unspoken Worlds, Women’s Religious Lives in Non-Western Cultures, San Francisco, 1980, pp. 159-73. Idem, “Women and the Division of Labor in an Iranian Village,” MERIP Reports 11, 1981, pp. 12-18, 31. Idem, “State Ideology and Village Women, in G. Nashat, ed., Women and Revolution in Iran, Boulder, Colo., 1983. Idem, “Die Medizinischen Systeme der Boir Ahmad,” in P. Snoy, ed., Ethnologie und Geschichte, Wiesbaden, 1983, pp. 163-79. Idem, Women of Deh Koh, Lives in an Iranian Village, Washington, 1989. Idem, “Sources of Female Power in Iran,” in M. Afkhami and E. Friedl, eds., In the Eye of the Storm: Women in Post-revolutionary Iran, Syracuse, N.Y., 1994, pp. 151-67.
A. Gabriel, Die Erforschung Persiens, Vienna, 1952. F. Gandolfo, “Bolandu and the Traces of an Ancient Handicraft, Weaving,” in Piacentini 1984, pp. 59-80. P. Gault, “Position ethnologique des peuples du Ferghanah,” L’Anthropologie 3, 1892, pp. 55-65. M. Gawecki, A Village of Central and North Afghanistan, Tradition and Attempts at Modernization, Wroclaw, 1983. Idem, “Structure and Organisation of the Rural Communities of Central and Northern Afghanistan,” Ethnologia Polona 12, 1986 [1988], pp. 7-35. E. Gellner, ed., Soviet and Western Anthropology, London, 1980. B. Glatzer, “Ethnologisch-biologische Forschungen bei nomadischen und sesshaften Paschtunen in Westafghanistan,” in C. Rathjens, ed., Neue Forschungen in Afghanistan, Opladen, Germany, 1981, pp. 181-86. Idem, “Processes of Nomadization in West Afghanistan,” in Contemporary Nomadic and Pastoral Peoples: Asia and the North, Studies in Third World Societies 18, 1981, pp. 61-86. J. Goldstein, “The Paradigm of Protection: Minority ‘Big Men’ in Iran,” Social Analysis 9, 1981, pp. 89-102. Idem, “Iranian Jewish Women’s Magical Narratives,” in P. P. Chock and J. R. Wyman, eds., Discourse and the Social Life of Meaning, Washington, 1986, pp. 147-68. B. Good, “The Heart of What’s the Matter: The Semantics of Illness in Iran,” Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 1, 1977, pp. 25-58. Idem, “The Transformation of Health Care in Modern Iranian History,” in Bonine and Keddie, 1981, pp. 59-82. Idem, M. Good and R. Moradi, “The Interpretation of Iranian Depressive Illness and Dysphoric Affect,” in A. Kleinemen and B. Good, eds., Culture and Depression, Berkeley, 1985, pp. 369-428. M. D. Good, “Social Hierarchy and Social Change in a Provincial Iranian Town,” Ph.D. diss., Harvard, 1976. Idem, “Social Hierarchy in Provincial Iran, the Case of Qajar Maragheh,” Iranian Studies 10, 1977, pp. 129-63. Idem, “A Comparative Perspective on Women in Provincial Iran and Turkey,” in Beck and Keddie, 1978, pp. 482-500. Idem, “Of Blood and Babies: The Relationship of Popular Islamic Physiology to Fertility,” Social Science and Medicine 14B, 1980, pp. 147-156. Idem, “The Changing Status and Composition of an Iranian Provincial Elite,” in Bonine and Keddie, 1981, pp. 269-88. Idem, G. M. Farr, B. Good, “Social Status and Fertility, a Study of a Town and Three Villages in Northwestern Iran,” Population Studies 34, 1980, pp. 311-19. G. Goodell, “Agricultural Production in a Traditional Village of Northern Khuzistan,” in E. Ehlers, ed., Traditionelle und moderne Formen der Landwirtschaft in Iran, Marburg, 1975, pp. 245-89. Idem, The Elementary Structures of Political Life: Rural Development in Pahlavi Iran, New York, 1986.
K. Gratzl, ed., Hindukusch: Osterreichische forschungsexpedition in den Wakhan 1970, Graz, Austria, Tex., 1974. B. Grima, The Performance of Emotion among Paxtun Women, Austin, 1992. Idem, “The Pakhtun Tapos: From Biography to Autobiography,” Asian Folklore 44, 1985, pp. 241-67. R. Groenhaug, “Scale as a Variable in Analysis: Fields in Social Organization in Herat, Northwest Afghanistan,” in F. Barth, ed., Scale and Social Organization, New York, 1973, pp. 78-121. J. Gross, ed., Muslims in Central Asia, Expressions of Identity and Change, Durham, 1992. J. Gulick, “Village and City, Cultural Continuities in Twentieth Century Middle Eastern Cultures,” in I. M. Lapidus, ed., Middle Eastern Cities, Berkeley, 1969, pp. 122-158. Idem, “The Ethos of Insecurity,” in G. DeVos, ed., Responses to Change, New York, 1976, pp. 137-56. Idem, “The Domestic Social Environment of Women and Girls in Isfahan, Iran,” in Beck and Keddie, 1978, pp. 501-21. J. and M. Gulick, “Family Structures and Adaptations in the Iranian City of Isfahan,” in J. Allman, ed., Women’s Fertility and Social Status in the Muslim World, New York, 1978, pp. 167-99. G. A. Guliev, Bibliografia Etnografii Azerbaydzhana (izdannoy na russkom yazyke do 1917 goda) chast’1 (Bibliography of the ethnography of Azerbaijan [published in Russian before 1917]), part I, Baku, 1962.
S. Haeri, “Power of Ambiguity: Cultural Improvisations on the Theme of Temporary Marriage,” Iranian Studies 19, 1986, pp. 123-54. Idem, Law of Desire: Temporary Marriage in Shi’i Iran, Syracuse, N.Y., 1989. Idem, “Temporary Marriage: An Islamic Discourse on Female Sexuality in Iran,” in M. Afkhami and E. Friedl, eds., In the Eye of the Storm: Women in Post-revolutionary Iran, Syracuse, N.Y., 1994, pp. 98-114. Idem, “Bonyādgerāʾī va ḥoqūq-e zan dar Īrān wa Pākestān,” Irān-æenāsī 14, 1995, pp. 41-60. S. I. Hallet, “Wandering Art,” Natural History 85, 1976, pp. 65-71. S. I. Hallet and R. Samizay, Traditional Architecture of Afghanistan, New York, 1980. D. M. Hart, Guardians of the Khaibar Pass, the Social Organization and History of the Afridis of Pakistan, Lahore, 1985. Idem, “British Colonial Ethnography in the North West Frontier of India (Pakistan): A Post-Colonial Assessment,” in D’un Orient à l’autre, vol. II: Identifications, Paris, 1991, pp. 109-29. H. Hansen, “The Pattern of Women’s Seclusion and Veiling in a Shiʿa villiage: Field Research in Bahrain, Arabian Gulf,” Folk 3, 1961, pp. 23-42. Idem, “Growing Up in Two Different Muslim Areas: Field Research in Iraqi Kurdistan and in Bahrain in the Persian (Arabian) Gulf,” Folk 5, 1963, pp. 143-56. Idem, “Investigations in a Shiʿa Village in Bahrain,” in National Museum (Denmark), Ethnographical Series 12, Copenhagen, 1968. M. Hegland, “Traditional Iranian Women: How They Cope,” Middle East Journal 36, 1982, pp. 483-501. Idem, “Aliabad Women, Revolution as Religious Activity,” in Nashat, 1983, pp. 171-94. Idem, “Islamic Revival or Political and Cultural Revolution? An Iranian Case Study,” in R. Antoun and M. E. Hegland, eds., Religious Resurgence, Contemporary Cases in Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, Syracuse, N.Y., 1987, pp. 194-219.
P. J. Higgins,”The Conflict of Acculturation and Enculturation in Suburban Elementary Schools of Tehran,” Journal of Research and Development in Education 9, 1976, pp. 102-12. Idem, “Minority-State Relations in Contemporary Iran,” Iranian Studies 17, 1984a, pp. 37-71. Idem, “Anthropologists and Issues of Public Concern: The Iran Crisis,” Human Organization 43, 1984b, pp. 132-45. Idem, “Women in the Islamic Republic of Iran: Legal, Social, and Ideological Changes,” Signs 10, 1985, pp. 477-94. Idem, “Women’s Education in the Islamic Republic of Iran,” in M. Afkhami and E. Friedl, eds., In the Eye of the Storm: Women in Post-Revolutionary Iran, Syracuse, N. Y., 1994, pp. 19-43. Idem, “Changing Perceptions of Iranian Identity in Elementary Textbooks,” in E. Fernea, ed., Children in the Muslim Middle East, Austin, Tex., 1995, pp. 337-393. Idem, “Intergenerational Stress: Parents and Adolescents in Iranian Immigrant Families,” in D. Baxter and R. Krulfield, eds., Beyond Boundaries: Selected Papers on Refugees and and Immigrants V, Arlington, Va., 1997, pp. 198-213. J. Holmes, “A Study of Social Organization in Certain Villages in West Khurasan, Iran, with special reference to Kinship and Agricultural Activities,” Ph.D. diss., Durham University, 1975. J. J. Honigmann, “Three Pakistan Villages,” Chapel Hill, N.C., 1958. E. Hooglund, “The Khushnishin Population of Iran,” Iranian Studies 6, 1973, pp. 229-45. Idem, “Rural Socioeconomic Organization in Transition, the Case of Iran’s Bonehs,” in Bonine and Keddie, 1981, pp. 191-207. Idem, Land and Revolution in Iran 1960-1980, Austin, Tex., 1982. L. Horne, “Rural Habitats and Habitations, A Survey of Dwellings in the Rural Islamic World,” in B. B. Taylor, ed., The Changing Rural Habitat II, Singapore, 1981, pp. 27-64. Idem, “The Household in Space,” American Behavioral Scientist 25/6, 1982, pp. 677-85. Idem, “Recycling in an Iranian Village: Ethnoarchaeology in Baghestan,”Archaeology 35/4, 1983, pp. 16-21. Idem, “Reading Village Plans, Architecture and Social Change in Northeastern Iran,” Expedition 33/1, 1991, pp. 44-52. Idem, “Occupational and Locational Instability in Arid Land Settlement,” in C. M. Cameron and S. A. Tomka, eds., Abandonment of Settlements and Regions, Cambridge, 1993, pp. 43-53. Idem, Village Spaces: Settlement and Society in Northeastern Iran, Washington, 1994. B. Hourcade, “Réforme agraire et spéculation foncière dans la région de Téhéran,” in G. Schweizer, ed., Interdisziplinäre Iran-Forschung. Beiträge aus Kulturgeographie, Ethnologie, Soziologie und Neuerer Geschichte, Wiesbaden, 1979, pp. 131-39. B. Hourcade and A. Tual, Documents pour l’étude de la répartition de quelques traits culturels dans la région de Téhéran, I: Alborz central, Paris, 1979. E. Howell, Mizh: A Monograph on the Government’s Relations with the Masud Tribe, Karachi, 1979. A. E. Hudson and E. Bacon, “Social Control and the Individual in Eastern Hazara Culture,” in L. Spier, A. Hallowell, and S. Newman, eds., Language, Culture and Personality, Menasha, Wis., 1941, pp. 239-58.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Ecological Guidelines for the Use of Natural Resources in the Middle East ad South West Asia, Morges, Switzerland, 1976. W. Irons, “The Turkoman of Iran: A Brief Research Report,” Iranian Studies 2, 1969, pp. 27-38. Idem, “Why Are the Yomut Not More Stratified?” in C. Chang and H. Koster, eds., Pastoralists at the Periphery: Herders in a Capitalist World, Tucson, Ariz., 1994, pp. 175-96. W. Irons and N. Dyson-Hudson, eds., Perspectives on Nomadism, Leiden, 1972. W. Ivanov, “Notes on the Ethnology of Khurasan,” Geographical Journal 67, 1926, pp. 143-58.
N. Jahangiri, “A Sociolinguistic Study of Tehrani Persian,” Ph.D. diss., London University, 1980. A. Janata, “Die Bevölkerung von Ghor, Beitrag zur Ethnographie und Ethnogenese der Chahar Aimaq,” Archiv für Völkerkunde 17-18, 1962-63, pp. 73-156. Idem, “Beitrag zur Völkerkunde Afghanistans,” Archiv für Völkerkunde 29, 1975, pp. 7-36. Idem, “Aimaq und Tagik in Westafghanistan,” in E. Orywal, ed., Die ethnischen Gruppen Afghanistans: Fallstudien zu Gruppenidentität und Intergruppenbeziehungen, Wiesbaden, 1986, pp. 87-100. G. Jarring, On the Distribution of Turk Tribes in Afghanistan: An Attempt at a Preliminary Classification, Lund and Leipzig, 1939. K. Jettmar, “Ethnological Research in Dardistan 1958,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 105, 1961, pp. 79-97. Idem, ed., Cultures of the Hindukush, Beiträge zur Südasienforschung, Südasien-institut, Universität Heidelberg, Wiesbaden, 1974. Idem, “Die Religionen des Hindukusch,” in C. M. Schroeder, ed., Die Religionen der Menschheit, vol. 4, Stuttgart, 1975. Idem, The Religion of the Kafirs: The Pre-Islamic Heritage of Afghan Nuristan, Warminster, U.K., 1986. S. Jones, An Annotated Bibliography of Nuristan (Kafiristan) and the Kalash Kafirs of Chitral, 2 vols., Copenhagen, 1966-1969. Idem, The Political Organization of the Kam Kafirs, Copenhagen, 1967. Idem, Men of Influence in Nuristan: A Study of Social Control and Dispute Settlement in Waigal Valley, Afghanistan, New York, 1974. Idem, “Kalashum political organisation,” in K. Jettmar, ed., Cultures of the Hindukush, Wiesbaden, 1974, pp. 44-50. Idem, “Mountain Communities in the Hindu Kush,” Afghan Studies 1, 1978, pp. 79-92. Idem, “In Search of the Horned Head-dress,” in P. Snoy, ed., Ethnologie und Geschichte, Wiesbaden, 1983, pp. 343-50.
B. A. Kaloyev, Osetiny (The Ossetians), Moscow, 1967. B. Kh. Karmysheva, “Arten der Viehhaltung in den Südbezirken von Usbekistan und Tadschikistan,” in L. Földes, ed., Viehwirtschaft und Hirtenkultur, Ethnographische Studien, Budapest, 1969, pp. 112-26. Idem, Ocherki etnicheskoĭ istorii yuzhnykh raĭonov Tadzhikistana i Uzbekistana (po etnograficheskim dannym) (Studies in the ethnic history of the southern regions of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan based on ethnographic data), Moscow, 1976. D. Katz, “Responses to Central authority in Nuristan, the Case of the Vaygal Valley Kalasha,” in M. N. Shahrani and R. L. Canfield, eds., Revolutions and Rebellions in Afghanistan, Anthropological Perspectives, Berkeley, 1984, pp. 94-118. N. R. Keddie, ed., Religion and Politics in Iran, Shi’ism from Quietism to Revolution, New Haven, 1983. Kavkazskiĭ Etnograficeskiĭ Sbornik (Caucasian ethnographic collection; periodical publication of the Institut Etnografii of the Akademiya Nauk, Moscow; contains numerous ethnographic articles in Russian on the Caucasus). R. L. Keiser, “Social Structure and Social Control in Two Afghan Mountain Societies,” Ph.D. diss., University of Rochester, N.Y., 1971. Idem, “Social Structure in the Southeastern Hindu Kush: Some Implications for Pashai Ethno-history,” Anthropos 69, 1974, pp. 445-56. Idem, “Genealogical Beliefs and Social Structure among the Sum of Afghanistan: A Day of Custom in Relation to Social Relations,” Asia Society Afghanistan Council, Occasional Paper 5, New York, 1973. Idem, “Institutionalised Inequalities in Nuristan,” in G. D. Berreman, ed., Social Inequality, New York, 1981a, pp. 151-62. Idem, “The Relevancy of Structural Principles in the Study of Political Organization: A Case against Optimization Theory,” Anthropos 76, 1981b, pp. 430-40. Idem, “Foul Shots and Rifle Fire,” Natural History 95, September 1996, pp. 26-32. A. H. Kešāvarz, Kušk wa došmānzīyārī, Majmūʿa-ye monogrāfīhā-ye Būyer Aḥmad wa Kohgīlūya, Tehran, 1347 Š./1968. P. Khoury and J. Kostiner, eds., Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, Berkeley, 1990. C. Kieffer, “A propos de la circoncision à Caboul et dans le Logar,” Festschrift für Wilhelm Eilers, Wiesbaden, 1967, pp. 191-201. Idem, “Über das Volk der Pastunen und seinen Pastunwali,” Beitrag zur afghanischen Ethnologie, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Orientforschung 17, 1972, pp. 614-24. Idem, “Wardak, toponyme ethnie de l’Afghanistan,” Acta Iranica 2, 1975, pp. 475-83. Idem, “La maintenance de l’identité ethnique chez les arabes arabophones, les Ormur et les Paraci en Afghanistan,” in E. Orywal, ed., Die ethnischen Gruppen Afghanistans: Fallstudien zu Gruppenidentität und Intergruppenbeziehungen, Wiesbaden, 1986, pp. 101-64.
N. Kielstra, “Ecology and Community in Iran: A Comparative Study of the Relations between Ecological Conditions, the Economic System, Village Politics, and Moral Value Systems in Two Iranian Villages,” Ph.D. diss., University of Amsterdam, 1975. Idem, “Expectations and Reality in the Modernization of Two Iranian Villages,” in R. Lawless, ed., The Middle Eastern Village, London, 1987, pp. 199-200. N. A. Kislyakov and A. I. Pershits, Narody peredneĭ Azii (Peoples of western Asia), Moscow, 1957. M. Klimburg, Afghanistan, Vienna, 1959. L. M. Kopecky, “Die Sayyid und die Imamitischen Hazara Afghanistans: Ethnogenes, religiöse Vergesellschaftung und ethnische Identität,” in E. Orywal, ed., Die ethnischen Gruppen Afghanistans: Fallstudien zu Gruppenidentität und Intergruppenbeziehungen, Wiesbaden, 1986, 165-203. F. Korom, Pakistani Folk Culture: A Select Annotated Bibliography, Islamabad, 1988. G. Kortum, “Zur Bilding und Entwicklung des Qašqāī-Stammes ʿAmale im 20. Jahrhundert,” in G. Schweizer, ed., Interdisziplinäre Iran-Forschung: Beiträge aus Kulturgeographie, Ethnologie, Soziologie und Neuerer Geschichte, Wiesbaden, 1979, pp. 71-98. Ḵ. Ḵosrawī, Jazīra-ye Kārg dar dawra-ye estīlā-ye naft, Tehran, 1342 Š./1963. K. Kristiansen, “A Kafir on Kafir History and Festivals,” in K. Jettmar, ed., Cultures of the Hindukush, Wiesbaden, 1974, pp. 1-10. A. L. Kroeber, “Culture Groupings in Asia,” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 3, 1947, pp. 322-30. G. Kuhnert, Falknerei in Afghanistan, Bonn, 1980. F. Kussmaul, “Siedlung und Gehöft bei den Tagiken in den Bergländern Afghanistans,” Anthropos 60, 1965, pp. 487-532. Idem, “Badaxsan und seine Tagiken,” Tribus 14, 1965, pp. 711-99. R. Kurin, “Modernization and Traditionalization: Hot and Cold Agriculture in Punjab, Pakistan,” South Asian Anthropologist 4, 1983, pp. 65-75. Idem, “The Structure of Blessedness at a Muslim Shrine in Pakistan,” Middle Eastern Studies 19, 1983, pp. 312-325. Idem, “Hot and Cold: Towards an Indigenous Model of Group Identity and Strategy in Pakistani Society,” in S. Pastner and L. Flam, eds., Anthropology in Pakistan: Recent Socio-cultural and Archaeological Perspectives, Ithaca, N.Y., 1982 pp. 89-102. Idem, “The Culture of Ethnicity in Pakistan,” in K. Ewing, Shariʿat and Ambiguity in South Asian Islam, Berkeley, 1988, pp. 220-47.
A. K. S. Lambton, Landlord and Peasant in Persia, London, 1953. C. Lindholm, “The Segmentary Lineage System: Its Applicability to Pakistan’s Political Structure,” in A. Embree, ed., Pakistan’s Western Borderlands, Durham, N.C., 1977, pp. 41-66. Idem, “Contemporary Politics in a Tribal Society: An Example from Swat District, NWFP, Pakistan,” Asian Survey 19, 1979, pp. 485-505. Idem, “Images of the Pathan, the usefulness of colonial ethnography,” European Journal of Sociology 21/4, 1980, pp. 350-61. Idem, “History and the Heroic Pakhtun,” Man 16, 1981a, pp. 463-67. Idem, “Leatherworkers and Love Potions,” American Ethnologist 8, 1981b, pp. 512-25. Idem, “The Structure of Violence among the Swat Pukhtun,” Ethnology 20, 1981c, pp. 147-56. Idem, “Models of Segmentary Political Action, Examples of Swat and Dir, NWFP, Pakistan,” in S. Pastner and L. Flam, eds., Anthropology in Pakistan: Recent Socio-cultural and Archaeological Perspectives, Ithaca, N.Y., 1982, pp. 21-39. Idem, “Leadership Categories and Social Processes in Islam: The Case of Dir and Swat,” Journal of Anthropological Research 42, 1986, pp. 1-13. Idem, “Kinship Structure and Political Authority: The Middle East and Central Asia,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 28, 1988a, pp. 334-55. Idem, “The Social Structure of Emotional Constraint: The Court of Louis XIV and the Pukhtun of Northern Pakistan,” Ethos 16, 1988b, pp. 227-47. Idem, “Quandaries of Command in Egalitarian Societies: Examples from Swat and Morocco,” in J. Cole, ed., Comparing Muslim Societies, Ann Arbor, 1992. Idem, “Caste in Islam and the Problem of Deviant Systems: A Critique of Recent Theory,” in T. Madan, ed., Muslim Communities of South Asia: Culture, Society, and Power, New Delhi, 1995, pp. 449-67.
V. Lievre, J.-Y. Loude, Le Chamanisme des Kalash du Pakistan, Paris, 1990. L. Loeb, The Jews of Southwest Iran, a Study of Cultural Persistence, New York, 1970. Idem, “The Jewish Wedding in Modern Shiraz,” in Studies in Marriage Customs, Jerusalem, Folklore Research Center Studies, vol. 4, 1974, pp. 167-76. Idem, “Dhimmi status and Jewish roles in Iranian society,” Ethnic Groups 1, 1976, pp. 89- 105. Idem, “The Religious Dimension of Modernization among the Jews of Shiraz,” in Bonine and Keddie, 1981, pp. 301-26. R. Loeffler, “The National Integration of the Boir Ahmad,” Iranian Studies 6, 1973, pp. 127-35. Idem, “Tribal Order and the State: The Political Organization of the Boir Ahmad,” Iranian Studies 11, 1978, pp. 145-71. Idem, “Economic Changes in a Rural Area since 1979,” in N. Keddie and E. Hooglund, eds., The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic, Syracuse, N.Y., 1986, pp. 93-109. Idem, Islam in Practice: Religious Beliefs in a Persian Village, Albany, N.Y., 1988. Idem, “Lur Huntinglore and the Culture-history of the Shin,” in P. Snoy, ed., Ethnologie und Geschichte, Wiesbaden, 1983, pp. 399-409. B.-R. Logashova, Turkmeny Irana (The Turkmen of Iran), Moscow, 1976. Idem, “Trans formation of the social organization of Iranian tribes,” in Contemporary Nomadic and Pastoral Peoples: Asia and the North, Studies in Third World Societies 18, 1981, pp. 53-60. J.-Y. Loude, Kalash, les derniers “infidèles” de l’Hindu-Kush, Paris, 1980. L. J. Luzbetak, Marriage and the Family in Caucasia, Vienna, 1951. Manābeʿ va maʾāḵeẕ-e ʿašāyer-e Īrān, Tehran, 1366 Š./1988.
D. Marsden, “The Social Organisation of Selected Villages in the Marvdasht Plain, Fars Province, Southern Iran,” Ph.D. diss., Durham University, 1981. M. Martin, “Case Studies of Traditional Marketing Systems, Goats and Goat Products in Northeast Iran,” Dairy Goat Journal, 1982, pp. 45-49. Idem, “City and Country: Rural Textile Production in Northeastern Iran,” in Carol Bier, ed., Woven from the Soul, Spun from the Heart, Textile Arts of Safavid and Qajar Iran, Washington, 1987. Idem, “Production Strategies, Herd Composition, and Offtake Rates, Reassessment of Archaeological Models,” MASCA Journal 4, 1987, pp. 154-65. Idem, “The National and Regional Context of Local Level Agricultural Strategies, The Case of Small holders in Northeastern Iran,” in S. Smith and E. Reeves, eds., Human Systems Ecology: Studies in the Integration of Political Economy, Adaptation, and Socionatural Regions, Boulder, Colo., 1988. Massé, Croyances. Idem, Persian Beliefs and Customs, tr. C. A. Messner, New Haven, Conn., 1954. C. Masson, Narrative of various journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, the Panjab, and Kalat, during a residence in those countries from 1826-1836, 4 vols., London, 1842. H. de Mauroy, Les Assyro-Chaldéens dans l’Iran d’aujourd’hui, Publication du Département de Géographie de l’Université de Paris-Sorbonne 6, Paris, 1978. A. Mayer, “Pir and Murshid: An Aspect of Religious Leadership in West Pakistan,” Middle Eastern Studies 3, 1967, pp. 160-169. S. Mazhar Ali Shah, Waziristan Tribes, Peshawar, 1991.
M. Mills, Oral Narrative in Afghanistan: The Individual in Tradition, New York, 1990. Idem, Rhetorics and Politics in Afghan Traditional Storytelling, Philadelphia, 1991. Idem, “Of the Dust and the Wind: Arranged Marriage in Afghanistan,” in D. L. Bowen and E. A. Early, eds., Everyday Life in the Muslim Middle East, Bloomington, Ind., 1993, pp. 47-56. Z. Mir-Hosseini, “Changing Aspects of Economic and Family Structures in Kalardasht, a District in Northern Iran up to 1978,” Ph.D. diss., Cambridge University, 1986. Idem, “Islamic Family Law, Ideals and Realities,” Cambridge Anthropology 16, special issue, 1992-93. Idem, “Paternity, Patriarchy and Matrifocality in the Shariʿa and in Social Practice: The Cases of Morocco and Iran,” Cambridge Anthropology 16, 1992-93, pp. 22-40. Idem, “Redefining the Truth, Ahl-i Haqq and the Islamic Republic of Iran,” British Journal of Middle East Studies 21, 1994, pp. 211-28. Idem, “Inner Truth and Outer History: The Two Worlds of an Iranian Mystical Sect: Ahl-i Haqq of Kurdistan,” IJMES 26, 1994, pp. 267-85. Idem, “Faith, Ritual and Culture among the Ahl-e Haqq of Southern Kurdistan,” in P. Kreyenbroek, ed., Kurdish Cultural Identity, London, 1995.
Moʾassesa-ye moṭāleʿāt o taḥqīqāt-e ejtemāʿī, Fehrest-e goẕārešhā-ye taḥqīqī va entešārāt-e čāpī, Tehran, 1337-49 Š./1958-71. L. F. Mongarova, “Sem’ya i semeynyi byt,” in G. P. Vasil’eva and B. Kh. Karmysheva, eds., Etnograficheskie ocherki Uzbekskogo sel’skogo naseleniya, Moscow, 1969, pp. 193-243. V. Monteil, ed., Les Tribus du Fars et la sédentarisation des nomades, Paris, 1966. G. Morgenstierne, Report on a Linguistic Mission to North Western India, Oslo, 1932. I. D. Mortensen, Nomads of Luristan: History, Material Culture and Pastoralism in Western Iran, London, 1993. Mostawfī, Šarḥ-e zendagānī. S. A. Mousavi, “The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study,” Ph.D. diss., Oxford University, 1991. R. Mottahedeh, Loyalty and Leadership in an early Islamic Society, Princeton, 1980. Idem, The Mantle of the Prophet, New York, 1985.
S. Nadjmabadi, “Die sozio-ökonomischen Folgen der Anlage von Tiefbrunnen am Beispiel von Dašt-e Karāt (Ḫorāsān),” in G. Schweizer, ed., Interdisziplinäre Iran-Forschung: Beiträge aus Kulturgeographie, Ethnologie, Soziologie und Neuerer Geschichte, Wiesbaden, 1979, pp. 59-70. Idem, “Identité ethnique contre nationalité, le cas de l’île de Larak (Golfe Persique),” in Digard, 1988, pp. 65-74. G. Nashat, ed., Women and Revolution in Iran, Boulder, Colo., 1983. A. Nayyar, Dera Ghazi Khan: Field Staff Report, Islamabad, n.d. Idem, Astor: Eine Ethnographie, Wiesbaden, 1986. C. Nelson, ed., The Desert and the Sown, Nomads in the Wider Society, Berkeley, 1973. B. Nikitine, “Les Afsars d’Urumiyeh,” Journal Asiatique 214, 1929, pp. 67-123. A. E. Nyerges, “Traditional Pastoralism: An Evolutionary Perspective,” Expedition 22/4, 1980a, pp. 36-41. Idem, “Traditional Pastoralism and Patterns of Range Degradation,” in H. N. le Houerou, ed., Browse in Africa, Addis Adaba, 1980b, pp. 465-71.
E. O’Donovan, The Merv Oasis, 2 vols., London, 1882. A. Olesen, “Marriage Norms and Practices in a Rural Community in North Afghanistan,” Folk 24, 1982a, pp. 112-41. Idem, “The Musallis—The Graincleaners of Afghanistan,” Afghanistan Journal 9, 1982b, pp. 13-19. Idem, “Peddling in East Afghanistan: Adaptive Strategies of the Peripatetic Sheikh Mohammadi,” in The Other Nomads, Peripatetic Minorities in Cross-Cultural Perspective, Cologne, 1987, pp. 35-63. Idem, Afghan Craftsmen, The Cultures of Three Itinerant Communities, London, 1994. Idem, Islam and Politics in Afghanistan, Richmond, Surrey, U.K., 1995. O. Olufsen, Through the Unknown Pamirs, The Second Danish Pamir Expedition 1898-1899, London, 1904. C. Op’t Land, The Shah-savan of Azarbaijan, Tehran, 1961. E. Orywal, Die Baluc in afghanisch-Sistan: Wirtschaft und soziopolitische Organisation in Nimruz, SW-Afghanistan, Berlin, 1982. Idem, Afghanistan—Ethnische Gruppen, TAVO-Blatt A VIII 16, Wiesbaden, 1983. E. Orywal, “Qaum-e Baluč—Ideologie und Realität,” in idem, ed., Die ethnischen Gruppen Afghanistan: Fallstudien zu Gruppenidentität und Intergruppenbeziehungen, Wiesbaden, 1986, pp. 223-38. Idem, “Ethnicity, Conceptual and Methodological Considerations,” in Digard, 1988, pp. 35-40. Idem, ed., Die ethnischen Gruppen Afghanistan: Fallstudien zu Gruppenidentität und Intergruppenbeziehungen, Beihefte zum TAVO, Reihe B (Geistwissenschaften) No. 70, Wiesbaden, 1986. J. Ovesen, “Ethnographic Field Research among the Pashai People of Darra-i-nur,” Afghanistan 31, 1978, pp. 91-99. Idem, “The Continuity of Pashai-Pourz society,” Folk 23, 1981. Idem, “The Construction of Ethnic Identities: the Nuristani and Pashai of Eastern Afghanistan,” in A. Jacobsen-Widding, ed., “Identity: Personal and Socio-Cultural,” Uppsala Studies in Cultural Anthropology 5, 1983, pp. 321-33. Idem, “The Construction of Ethnic Identities—the Nurestani and the Pashai (Eastern Afghanistan),” in E. Orywal, ed., Die ethnischen Gruppen Afghanistans: Fallstudien zu Gruppenidentität und Intergruppenbeziehungen, Wiesbaden, 1986, pp. 239-53. T. Ozkaya, “The Bibliography of the Turkish Studies on Central Asia, 1928-1981,” Journal of Central Asia 5 (Islamabad), 1982, pp. 1-350.
A. R. Palwal, “The Kafirs’ Ranks and their Symbols,” and “The Harvesting Festivals of the Kalash in the Birir valley,” in K. Jettmar, ed., Cultures of the Hindukush, Wiesbaden, 1974, pp. 64-68, 93-94. Idem, “The Nomads’ Situation: An Historical Contrast,” in E. W. Anderson and N. H. Dupree, eds., The Cultural Basis of Afghan Nationalism, London, 1990, pp. 84-91. M.-H. Papoli-Yazdi, Le nomadisme et le semi-nomadisme dans le nord du Khorassan, Paris, 1991. H. Pārsā, Barrasī-e ejtemāʿī-e eqteṣādi-e bašt bābūʾī, Majmūʿa-ye monogrāfī-hā-ye Kohgīlūya, Tehran, 1347 Š./1968. Idem, “Zendagī-e eqteṣādī wa ejtemāʿī-e damdarān-e ʿašāyer-e Sangsar,” Ph.D. diss., University of Tehran, 1358 Š./1979. M. B. Pārsī, Darbāra-ye īl-e Būyer Aḥmadī, Ph.D. diss., University of Tehran, 1343 Š./1964. C. Pastner, “A Social Structural and Historical Analysis of Honor, Shame and Purdah,” Anthropological Quarterly 45, 1972, pp. 248-60. Idem, “Accommodations to Purdah: The Female Perspective,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 36, 1974, pp. 408-14. Idem, “Kinship Terminology and Feudal versus Tribal Orientations in Baluch Social Organization: A Comparative View,” in p. W. eissleder, ed., The Nomadic Alternative: Modes and Models of Interaction in the African-Asian Deserts and Steppes, The Hague, 1978,p. 261-74. Idem, “Access to Property and the Status of Women in Islam,” in J. J. Smith, Women in Contemporary Muslim Societies, Lewisburg, Pa. 1980, pp. 146-85. Idem, “Gradations of Purdah and the Creation of Social Boundaries on a Baluchistan Oasis,” in H. Papanek and G. Minault, eds., Separate Worlds: Studies of Purdah in South Asia, Delhi, 1982, pp. 164-89. Idem, “The Negotiation of Bilateral Endogamy in the Middle Eastern Context: the Zikri Baluch Example,” Journal of Anthropological Research 42, 1986, pp. 573-86. Idem, “A Case of Honor among the Oasis Baluch of Makran: Controversy and Accommodation,” in K. Ewing, Shariʿat and Ambiguity in South Asian Islam, Berkeley, 1988, pp. 248-58.
S. Pastner, “Aspects of Religion in Southern Baluchistan,” Anthropologica 14, 1972, pp. 231-41. Idem, “Cooperation in Crisis among Baluch Nomads,” Asian Affairs 6, 1975, pp. 165-76. Idem, “Baluch Fishermen in Pakistan,” Asian Affairs 9, 1978, pp. 161-67. Idem, “Conservatism and Change in Desert Feudalism: The Case of Southern Baluchistan,” in W. Weissleder, ed., The Nomadic Alternative: Modes and Models of Interaction in the African-Asian Deserts and Steppes, The Hague, 1978, pp. 247-60. Idem, “The Man who Would be Anthropologist: Dilemmas in Fieldwork on the Baluchistan Frontier of Pakistan,” Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 3, 1979, pp. 44-52. Idem, “The Competitive Saints of the Baluch,” Asian Affairs 11, 1980, pp. 37-42. Idem, “Clients, Camps and Crews: Adaptational Variation in Baluch Social Organization,” in S. Pastner and L. Flam, eds., Anthropology in Pakistan: Recent Socio-cultural and Archaeological Perspectives, Ithaca, N.Y., 1982, pp. 61-73. Idem, “Emigration, Islamization and Social Change: The Impact of Middle East Oil Wealth on Pakistan,” South Asian Anthropologist 5, 1984, pp. 95-102. Idem, “The Human Factor in South Asian Anthropology: A Case from Baluchistan,” South Asian Anthropologist 7, 1986, pp. 27-35. Idem, “Cultural Barriers to Pakistan’s Quest for Unity,” Journal of Developing Societies 3, 1987, pp. 25-45. Idem, “Sardar, Hakom, Pir: Leadership Patterns among the Pakistani Baluch,” in K. Ewing, Shariʿat and Ambiguity in South Asian Islam, Berkeley, 1988, pp. 164-79. S. Pastner and L. Flam, eds., Anthropology in Pakistan: Recent Socio-cultural and Archaeological Perspectives, Ithaca, N.Y., 1982. G. Patzelt and R. Senarclens de Grancy, “Die Ortschaft Ptukh im Oestlichen Wakhan,” in R. Senarclens de Grancy and Robert Kostka, eds., Grosser Pamir, Graz, 1978, pp. 215-45.
Persia, Admiralty, London, 1945. G. Pedersen, “Afghan Nomads in Exile: Patterns of Organization and Reorganization in Pakistan,” in E. W. Anderson and N. H. Dupree, The Cultural Basis of Afghan Nationalism, London, 1990, pp. 154-59. Idem, Afghan Nomads in Transition: A Century of Change among the Zala Khan Khel, London, 1994. E. M. Peshchereva, Yagnobskie etnograficheskie materialy (Yagnobi ethnographic materials), Dushanbe, 1976. Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark, “Jars Built Without a Wheel in the Hazarajat of Central Afghanistan,” Man 54, 1954, p. 5. Idem, “The Abdul Camp in Central Afghanistan,” Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society 41, 1954, pp. 44-53. Ḥ. Peymān, Īl-e Qašqāʾī, Tehran, 1347 Š./1968. V. F. Piacentini, “The Coastal Region of Harmuzgan: History and Territory,” in idem, ed., 1984, pp. 117-156. Idem, ed., Gruppi socio-tecnici e strutture politico-amministrative della fascia costiera meridionale Iranica: Ricognizioni e Ricerche Storico-insediamentali in Harmuzgan e Makran, Studi preliminari della Missione, n.p., 1984. H. Pottinger, Travels in Beloochistan and Sinde, London, 1816. R. and M. Poulton, Ri Jang, Un village tajik dans le nord de l’Afghanistan, Paris, 1979. R. Pourzal, “Nomads Without a Chief, The Baraftowi Koohaki of Southern Iran,” M.A. research paper, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, 1980. Idem, “The Other Nomads of South Persia: The Baraftowi Koohaki of Vahrom,” Nomadic Peoples 8, 1981, pp. 24-26. H. Pūrkarīm, Fašandak, Tehran, 1341 Š./1962. Idem, “Torkmān-hā-ye Īrān,” Honar o mardom 41-43, 1344-45 Š./1966,pp. 29-42; 1345 Š./1966, pp. 61-64; 1346 Š./1967-68, p. 71; 1347 Š./1968, pp. 73, 79; 1348 Š./1969, p. 84. Idem, “Kordān-e Bāčavānlū-ye Qūčān,” Honar o mardom 88, 1348 Š./1969-70, pp. 23-29. Idem, “Dehkada-ye samā,” Honar o Mardom 95, 1349 Š./1970, pp. 31-44.
B. Rahmani, “La vie rurale dans la région de Hamedan (Zagros central), Iran,” Ph.D. diss., Nancy, France, 1983. ʿA. Raḵš-e Ḵoršīd, Īl-e Čerām, Monogrāfī-hā-ye Kohgīlūya, Tehran, 1347 Š./1968. Idem, “Ezdewāj dar īl-e Bahmaʾī,” Ph.D. diss., University of Tehran, 1358 Š./1979. A. Rao, “Note préliminaire sur les Jat d’Afghanistan,” Stud. Ir. 8, 1979, pp. 141-49. Idem, Les Ğorbat d’Afghanistan, Aspects économiques d’un groupe itinérant ‘Jat,δ Paris, 1982. Idem, “Roles, Status and Niches: A Comparison of Peripatetic and Pastoral Women in Afghanistan,” Nomadic Peoples 21-22, 1986, pp. 153-77. Idem, “Peripatetic Minorities in Afghanistan—Image and Identity,” in E. Orywal, ed., Die ethnischen Gruppen Afghanistans: Fallstudien zu Gruppenidentität und Intergruppenbeziehungen, Wiesbaden, 1986, pp. 254-83. Idem, “Folk Models and Inter-ethnic Relations in Afghanistan: A Case Study of Some Peripatetic Communities,” in Digard, 1988, pp. 109-20. Idem, “Levels and Boundaries in Native Models: Social Groupings among the Bakkarwal of the Western Himalayas,” in T. Madan, ed., Muslim Communities of South Asia: Culture, Society, and Power, New Delhi, 1995, pp. 289-332. C. Rathjens, ed., Neue Forschungen in Afghanistan, Opladen, Germany, 1981. H. Raverty, Notes on Afghanistan and Part of Baluchistan. Geographical, Ethnological and Historical, London, 1888. M. Reut, “Le verre soufflé de Hérat,” Stud. Ir. 2, 1973, pp. 97-111. Idem, “A propos de changements d’identité ethnique dans le Lout oriental (Iran),” in J.-P. Digard, ed., Le Cuisinier et le Philosophe: Hommage à Maxime Rodinson, Paris, 1982, pp. 111-17. J. Robertson, The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush, London, 1896; repr. Karachi, 1975. Idem, Notes on the Nomad Tribes in Eastern Afghanistan, Quetta, 1934, reprinted 1978. H. Rotblat, “The Patterns of Recruitment into the Iranian Political Elite,” M.A. thesis, University of Chicago, 1968. Idem, “Stability and Change in an Iranian Provincial Bazaar,” Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1972. Idem, “Structural Impediments to Change in the Qazvin Bazaar,” Iranian Studies 5, 1972, pp. 130-48. Idem, “Social Organization and Development in an Iranian Provincial Bazaar,” Economic Development and Cultural Change 23, 1975, pp. 292-305. W. Royce, “The Shirazi Provincial Elite: Status Maintenance and Change,” in Bonine and Keddie, 1981, pp. 289-300. P. Rubel, “Herd Composition and Social Structure: On Building Models of Nomadic Pastoral Societies,” Man 4, 1969, pp. 268-273.
Ḡ.-Ḥ. Sāʿedī, Īlḵčī, Tehran, 1342 Š./1963. Idem, Ḵīāv ya Meškīnšahr, Tehran, 1344 Š./1965. Idem, Aḥl-e havā, Tehran, 1966. J. Safīnežād, Sīsaḵt-e Boīr Aḥmad, Tehran, 1966. Idem, Barrasī-e ejtemāʿī wa eqteṣādī-e sīsaḵt-e Boyer Aḥmad, Majmūʿa-ye Monogrāfīhā-ye Kohgīlūya, Tehran, 1347 Š./1968. Idem, Atlas-e īlāt-e Kohgīlūya, Tehran, 1347 Š./1968. Idem, Asnād-e Bona, Tehran, 1357 Š./1978. Idem, ʿAšāyer-e markazī-e Īrān, Tehran, 1368 Š./1989. F. Safizadeh, “Agriarian Change, Migration and Impact of the Islamic Revolution in a Village Community in Azerbaijan, Iran,” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1985. A. Saʿīdī, Saraḵs-e dīrūz wa emrūz, Mašhad, 1353 Š./1974. Idem, “Negāhī ba vīžagīhā-ye ensānī-e šomāl-e Ḵorāsān,” in M.ʿAlawī, ed., Majmūʿa-ye soḵanān-e naḵostīn semīnār-e masòāʾel-e jogrāfīā-e nāḥīyaʾī-e Īrān, Mašhad, 1975, pp. 74-92. L. Sakata, “The Concept of Music in Three Persian-speaking Areas of Afghanistan,” Asian Music 8, 1976, pp. 1-28. Idem, “Afghan Musical Instruments,” Afghanistan Journal 4, 1977, pp. 144-46; 5, 1978, pp. 70-73, 150-53; 6, 1979, pp. 84-86, 144-46; 7, 1980, pp. 30-32, 93-6, 144-45. R. Salzer, “Social Organization of a Nomadic Pastoral Nobility in Southern Iran: The Kashkuli Kuchek of the Qashqa’i,” Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1974. P. C. Salzman, “Political Organization among Nomadic Peoples,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 111, 1967, pp. 115-31. Idem, “Tribal Chiefs and Middlemen: The Politics of Encapsulation in the Middle East,” Anthropological Quarterly 47, 1974, pp. 203-10. Idem, “Islam and Authority in Tribal Iran: A Comparative Comment,” Muslim World Quarterly 65, 1975, pp. 186-95. Idem, “Ideology and Change in Tribal Society,” Man 13, 1978, pp. 618-37. Idem, “Does Complementary Opposition Exist?” American Anthropologist 80, 1978, pp. 53-70. Idem, ed., When Nomads Settle: Processes of Sedentarization as Adaptation and Response, Brooklyn, N.Y., 1980. Idem, “Culture as Enhabilments,” in L. Holy and M. Stuchlik, eds., The Structure of Folk Models, London, 1980, pp. 233-56. Idem, “Are Nomads Capable of Development Decisions?” Nomadic Peoples 18, 1985, pp. 47-52. Idem, “Dates to Meet, Dates to Eat: Oasis Life in Tribal Baluchistan,” Newsletter of Baluchistan Studies 3, 1986, pp. 48-62. Idem, Kin and Contract in Baluchi Herding Camps,, Naples, 1992. Idem, “Baluchi Nomads in the Market,” in C. Chang and H. Koster, eds., Pastoralists at the Periphery: Herders in a Capitalist World, Tucson, Ariz., 1994, pp. 165-74. Idem, “Studying Nomads: An Autobiographical Reflection,” Nomadic Peoples 36, 1995, pp. 157-66. Idem, “Introduction: Varieties of Pastoral Societies,” in U. Fabietti and P. Salzman, The Anthropology of Tribal and Peasant Pastoral Societies, Como-Pavia, Italy, 1996, pp. 21-37. Ḡ.-ʿA. Šāmlū, “Īl-e Māmeš,” Honar o Mardom 1/7, 1342 Š./1963, pp. 21-25. M. Sanadjian, “The Articulation of Luri Society and Economy with the Outside World: A Growing Paradox in a South-western Province of Iran,” Ph.D. diss., Oxford University, 1987.
J. M. Scarce, “Continuity and Modernity in the Costume of the Muslims of Central Asia,” in Akiner, 1991, pp. 237-57. H. Scholberg, The District Gazetteers of British India: A Bibliography, Bibliotheca Asiatica 3, Zug, Switzerland, 1970. H. Schurmann, The Mongols of Afghanistan, The Hague, 1962. E. Schuyler, Turkistan: Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkistan, Khokand, Bukhara, and Kuldja, 3rd edition, New York, 1885. R. M. Schwartz, The Structure of Christian-Muslim Relations in Contemporary Iran, Occasional Papers in Anthropology 13, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1985. R. Scott, The North Shamalan: A Survey of Land and People, Helmand Valley, Afghanistan, USAID Afghanistan, Kabul, 1971. Idem, Khalaj Market, USAID Afghanistan, Kabul, 1972. Idem, Tribal and Ethnic Groups in the Helmand Valley, Asia Society Afghanistan Council, Occasional Paper 21, New York, 1980. R. Senarclens de Grancy, “Siedlungsbild und Hausformen der Ortschaft Wark im Wakhan,” in Karl Gratzl, ed., Hindkusch, Österreichische Forschungsexpedition in den Wakhan 1970, Graz, 1972, pp. 61-75. M. N. Shahrani, “The Retention of Pastoralism among the Kirghiz of the Afghan Pamirs,” in J. F. Fisher, ed., Himalayan Anthropology, the Indo-Tibetan Interface, The Hague, 1978, pp. 233-50. Idem, The Kirghiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan: Adaptation to Closed Frontiers, Seattle, Wa., 1979. Idem, “Ethnic Relation under Closed Frontier Conditions, Northeast Badakhshan,” in W. McCagg and B. Silver, eds., Soviet Asian Ethnic Frontiers, New York, 1979, pp. 174-92. Idem, “State Building and Social Fragmentation in Afghanistan: A Historical Perspective,” in A. Banuazizi and M. Weiner, eds., The State, Religion and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan, Syracuse, 1986, pp. 23-74. Idem, “Afghanistan: State and Society in Retrospect,” in E. W. Anderson and N. H. Dupree, eds., The Cultural Basis of Afghan Nationalism, London, 1990, pp. 41-49. Idem, “Local Knowledge of Islam and Social Discourse in Afghanistan and Turkistan in the Modern Period,” in R. Canfield, ed., Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, Cambridge, 1991, pp. 161-88. M. N. Shahrani and R. L. Canfield, eds., Revolutions and Rebellions in Afghanistan: Anthropological Perspectives, Berkeley, 1984.
S. Shahshahani, “Mamasani Women: Changes in the Division of Labor among a Sedentarized Pastoral People of Iran,” in E. Leacock and H. Safa, eds., Women’s Work, Development and the Division of Labor by Gender, South Hadley, Mass., 1986. Idem, “Women Whisper, Men Kill: A Case Study of the Mamasani Pastor [sic] Nomads of Iran,” in L. Dube, E. Leacock, S. Ardener, eds., Visibility and Power, Essays on Women in Society and Development, New York, 1986. Idem, Čahār fasÂl āftāb: zendegī-e rūz-marra-ye zanān eskān yāfta-e ʿašāyer-e Mamasanī, Tehran, 1366 Š./1987. Idem, “Tribal Schools of Iran: Sedentarization through Education,” Nomadic Peoples 36/37, 1995, pp. 145-56. A. Shalinsky, Central Asian Emigres in Afghanistan: Problems of Religious and Ethnic Identity, Asia Society, Afghanistan Council, Occasional Paper 19, New York, 1979. Idem, “Group Prestige in Northern Afghanistan: The Case of an Inter-ethnic Wedding,” Ethnic Groups 2, 1980, pp. 269-82. Idem, “Islam and Ethnicity: The Northern Afghanistan Perspective,” Central Asian Survey 1, 1982, pp. 71-85. Idem, “Uzbek Ethnicity in Northern Afghanistan,” in E. Orywal, ed., Die ethnischen Gruppen Afghanistans: Fallstudien zu Gruppenidentität und Intergruppen beziehungen, Wiesbaden, 1986, pp. 290-303. Lady Sheil, Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia, with notes on Russia, Koords, Toorkomans, Nestorians, Khiva, and Persia, London, 1856. E. M. Shilling, Narody Kavkaza, malye narody Dagestana (Peoples of the Caucasus, small nationalities of Dāḡestān), Moscow, 1993. A. Singer, “Tribal Migrations on the Irano-Afghan Border,” Asian Affairs 60, 1973, pp. 160-65. Idem, Lords of the Khyber, the Story of the North West Frontier, London, 1984. M. Slobin, Music in the Culture of Northern Afghanistan, Tucson, Az., 1976. P. Snoy, “Last Pagans of the Hindu Kush,” Natural History 68, 1959, pp. 520-29. Idem, “Nuristan und Mungan,” Tribus 14, 1965) pp. 101-49. Idem, Bagrot: Eine dardische Talschaft im Karakorum, Graz, 1975. Idem, ed., Ethnologie und Geschichte, Wiesbaden, 1983. Sovetskaya Etnografiya/Etnograficeskoye Obozreniye, 1931- (contains many articles on the Iranian world).
B. Spooner, “The Function of Religion in Persian Society,” Iran 1, 1963, pp. 83-96. Idem, “Kūch u Balūch and Ichthyophagi,” Iran 2, 1964, pp. 53-67. Idem, “Arghiyān: The Area of Jājarm in Western Khurasan,” Iran 3, 1965, pp. 97-107. Idem, “Iranian Kinship and Marriage,” Iran 4 1966, pp. 51-59. Idem, “Notes on the Baluchī Spoken in Persian Baluchistan,” Iran 5, 1967, pp. 51-71. Idem, “Mosawwada jehat-e barrasī-e jāmeʿ az kavīr-hā wa bīābān-hā-ye wasaṭ-e falāt-e Īrān,” in Yādnāma-ye Īrānī-e Mīnorskī, Tehran, 1969, pp. 1-13. Idem, “The Evil Eye in the Middle East,” in M. Douglas, ed., Witchcraft, Confessions and Accusations, London, 1970, pp. 311-19. Idem, “Towards a Generative Model of Nomadism,” Anthropological Quarterly 44, 1971, pp. 198-210. Idem, “Cultural Anthropology in Iran: Beginnings and Prospects,” Expedition 13, 1971, pp. 66-71. Idem, “Continuity and Change in Rural Iran, the Eastern Deserts,” in P. J. Chelkowski, ed., Iran: Continuity and Variety, New York, 1971, pp. 1-20. Idem, “Notes on the Toponymy of the Persian Makran,” in C. E. Bosworth, ed., Iran and Islam, Edinburgh, 1971, pp. 517-33. Idem, “Religion and Society Today: An Anthropological Perspective,” in E. Yarshater, ed., Iran Faces the Seventies, New York, 1972, pp. 166-88. Idem, “The Iranian Deserts,” in B. Spooner, ed., Population Growth: Anthropological Implications, Cambridge, Ma., 1972, pp. 245- 68. Idem, “The Status of Nomadism as a Social Phenomenon,” Journal of Asian and African Studies 7, 1972, pp. 122-31. Idem, The Cultural Ecology of Pastoral Nomads, Reading, Ma., 1973. Idem, “Nomadism in Baluchistan,” in L. S. Leshnik and G. D. Sontheimer, eds., Pastoralists and Nomads in South Asia, Wiesbaden, 1974, pp. 171-82. Idem, “Irrigation and Society, Two Cases from the Iranian Plateau,” in T. E. Downing and McG. Gibson, eds., Irrigation’s Impact on Society, Tucson, Az., 1974, pp. 43-57. Idem, “City and River in Iran: Urbanisation and Irrigation on the Iranian Plateau,” Iranian Studies 7, 1974, pp. 681-713. Idem, “Flexibility and Interdependence in Traditional Pastoral Land Use Systems,” in International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Ecological Guidelines for the Use of Natural Resources in the Middle East and South West Asia, Morges, Switzerland, 1976, pp. 86-93. Idem, “Anthropology and the Evil Eye,” in C. Maloney, ed., The Evil Eye, New York, 1976, pp. 279-85. Idem, “Desert and Sown: A New Look at an Old Relationship,” in T. Naff and R. Owen, eds., Studies in 18th Century Islamic History, Carbondale, Il., 1977, pp. 236-49. Idem, “Ecology in Perspective, The Human Context of Ecological Research,” International Social Science Journal, 34 1982, pp. 397-410. Idem, “Dryland Ecology in a Developing Country: The Organisational Dimension,” Annals of Arid Zone 21, 1982, pp. 81-90. Idem, “Nomads in a Wider Society,” Cultural Survival Quarterly 8, 1984, pp. 23-25. Idem, “Who are the Baluch? A Preliminary Investigation into the Dynamics of an Ethnic Identity from Qajar Iran,” in C. E. Bosworth and C. Hillenbrand, eds., Qajar Iran: Political, Social and Cultural Change, 1800-1925, Edinburgh, 1984, pp. 93-110. Idem, “Fesenjan and Kashk, Culture and Metaculture,” in P. Chelkowski, ed., Franciszek Machalski Memorial Volume, Folia Orientalia 22, Cracow, 1981-84, pp. 245- 58. Idem, “Weavers and Dealers: The Authenticity of an Oriental Carpet,” in A. Appadurai, ed., The Social Life of Things, Commodities in Cultural Perspective, Cambridge, 1986, pp. 195-235. Idem, “Insiders and Outsiders in Baluchistan, Western and Indigenous Perspectives on Ecology and Development,” in P. Little, M. Horowitz and A. E. Nyerges, eds., Lands at Risk in the Third World: Local-Level Perspectives, Boulder, Colo., 1987, pp. 58-68. B. Spooner and L. Horne, eds., “Cultural and Ecological Perspectives on the Turan Program, Iran,” Expedition 22, special issue, Philadelphia, 1980. B. Spooner and H. S. Mann, Desertification and Development: Dryland Ecology in Social Perspective, London, 1982. B. Spooner and R. McC. Netting, “Humanized Economics, Boserup in the Context of Anthropology,” Peasant Studies Newsletter 1, 1972, pp. 54-59. B. Spooner and P. C. Salzman, “Kirman and the Middle East: Paul Ward English’s City and Village in Iran: Settlement and Economy in the Kirman Basin,” Iran 7, 1969, pp. 107-13.
W. Steul, Paschtunwali, Wiesbaden, 1981. D. Stilo, “The Tati Language Group in the Sociolinguistic Context of Northwestern Iran and Transcaucasia,” Iranian Studies 14, 1981, pp. 137-87. G. Stöber, Die Afshar: Nomadismus im Raum Kerman (Zentral-Iran), Marburg, 1978. Idem “Zur sozio-ökonomischen Differenzierung der Afsar Kermans,” in G. Schweizer, ed., Interdisziplinäre Iran-Forschung: Beiträge aus Kulturgeographie, Ethnologie, Soziologie und Neuerer Geschichte, Wiesbaden, 1979, pp. 101-12. Idem, Die Ṣayād Fischer in Sistan (Sīstān Projekt III), Marburger Geographische Schriften 85, Marburg, 1981. Idem, “The Influence of Politics on the Formation and Reduction of ‘Ethnic Boundaries’ of Tribal Groups: The Cases of Sayad and Afšar in Eastern Iran,” in J.-P. Digard, ed., Le Fait ethnique en Iran et en Afghanistan, Paris, 1988, pp. 131-38. R. F. Strand, “Native Accounts of Kom history,” in K. Jettmar, ed., Cultures of the Hindukush, Wiesbaden, 1974, pp. 22-23. Idem, “A Note on the Rank, Political Leadership and Government among the pre-Islamic Kom,” in Jettmar, 1974, pp. 57-63. Idem, “Principles of Kinship Organization among the Kom Nuristani,” in Jettmar, 1974, pp. 51-56. Idem, “The Evolution of Anti-Communist Resistance in Eastern Nuristan,” in N. Shahrani and R. L. Canfield, eds., Revolutions and Rebellions in Afghanistan: Anthropological Perspectives, Berkeley, 1984, pp. 77-93. B. V. Street, “The Mullah, the Shahnameh and the Madrasseh: Some Aspects of Literacy in Iran,” Asian Affairs 62, 1975, pp. 290-306. Idem, Literacy in Theory and Practice, Cambridge, 1984. G. Swee, “Sedentarization, Change and Adaptation among the Kordshuli Pastoral Nomads of Southwestern Iran,” Ph.D. diss., Michigan State University 1981. A. Sweetser, “Afghan nomad refugees in Pakistan,” Cultural Survival Quarterly 8, 1984, pp. 26-30. A. K. Sverchevskaya, Bibliografiya Irana: Literatura na Russkom yazyke 1917-1965 (Bibliography of Iran: sources in Russian 1917-1965), Moscow, 1967. N. B. Swidler, “The Political Structure of a Tribal Federation: The Brahui of Baluchistan,” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1973. Idem, “The Political Context of Brahui Sedentarization,” Ethnology 12, 1973, pp. 299-314. Idem, “Kalat, the Political Economy of a Tribal Chiefdom,” American Ethnologist 19, 1992, pp. 553-70. W. Swidler, “Technology and Social Structure in Baluchistan, West Pakistan,” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1968. Idem, “Adaptive Processes Regulating Nomad-sedentary Interaction in the Middle East,” in Nelson, 1973, pp. 23-41. A. Szabo and T. J. Barfield, Afghanistan: an Atlas of Indigenous Domestic Architecture, Austin, Tex., 1991.
S. Ṭāhbāz, Yuš, Tehran, 1342 Š./1963. N. Tapper, “Direct Exchange and Brideprice: Alternative Forms in a Complex Marriage System,” Man 16, 1981, pp. 387- 407. Idem, “Abd al-Rahman’s North-West Frontier, the Pashtun Colonisation of Afghan Turkistan,” in R. Tapper, ed., The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan, London, 1983, pp. 233-61. Idem, “Acculturation in Afghan Turkestan, Pashtun and Uzbek women,” Asian Affairs 70, 1983, pp. 35-44. Idem, “Causes and Consequences of the Abolition of Brideprice in Afghanistan, in N. Shahrani and R. L. Canfield, eds., Revolutions and Rebellions in Afghanistan: Anthropological Perspectives, Berkeley, 1984. pp. 291-305. Idem, Bartered Brides: Politics, Gender and Marriage in an Afghan Tribal Society, Cambridge, 1991a. Idem, “Women and Power, a Perspective on Marriage among Durrani Pashtuns of Afghan Turkistan,” in S. Akiner, ed., Cultural Change and Continuity in Central Asia, London, 1991b, pp. 181-97. N. and R. Tapper, “‘Eat this, it’ll do you a power of good’: Food and Commensality among Durrani Pashtuns,” American Ethnologist 13, 1986, pp. 62-79. Idem, “A Marriage with Fieldwork,” Focaal: tijdschrift voor antropologie 10, 1989, pp. 54-60. R. Tapper, “Nomadism in Afghanistan,” in L. Dupree and L. Albert, eds., Afghanistan in the 1970s, New York, 1974, pp. 126-43. Idem, ed., The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan, London, 1983. Idem, “Holier than Thou: Islam in Three Tribal Societies,” in A. Ahmed and D. Hart, eds., Islam in Tribal Societies, From the Atlas to the Indus, London, 1984. Idem, “Ethnicity and Class: Dimensions of Intergroup Conflict in North-central Afghanistan,” in N. Shahrani and R. L. Canfield, eds., Revolutions and Rebellions in Afghanistan: Anthropological Perspectives, Berkeley, 1984, pp. 230-46. Idem, “One Hump or Two? Hybrid Camels and Pastoral Cultures,” Production pastorale et sociétés 16, 1985, pp. 55-70. Idem, “Ethnicity, Order and Meaning in the Anthropology of Iran and Afghanistan,” in J.-P. Digard, Le Fait ethnique en Iran et en Afghanistan, Paris, 1988, pp. 21-34. Idem, “History and Identity among the Shahsevan,” Iranian Studies 21, 1988, pp. 84-108. Idem, “Anthropologists, Historians, and Tribespeople on Tribe and State Formation in the Middle East,” in P. Khoury and J. Kostiner, eds., Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, Berkeley, 1990, pp. 48-73. Idem, “Ethnic Identities and Social Categories in Iran and Afghanistan” in E. Tonkin, M. McDonald, M. Chapman, eds., History and Ethnicity, ASA Monographs 27, London, 1989, pp. 232-46. Idem, “Letter,” Man 24, 1989, pp. 683-84. Idem, “Golden Tent-pegs: Settlement and Change among Nomads in Afghan Turkistan,” in S. Akiner, ed., Cultural Change and Continuity in Central Asia, London, 1991, pp. 198-217. Idem, “Nomads and Commissars on the Frontiers of Eastern Azerbaijan,” in K. McLachlan, ed., The Boundaries of Modern Iran, New York, 1994. Idem, “Blood, Wine and Water: Social and Symbolic Aspects of Drinks and Drinking in the Islamic Middle East,” in S. Zubaida and R. Tapper, eds., Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, London, 1994, pp. 215-31.
R. Tapper and N. Tapper, “Marriage, Honour and Responsibility, Islamic and Local Models in the Mediterranean and the Middle East,” Cambridge Anthropology 16, 1992-93, pp. 3-21. B. Tavakolian, “An Anthropologist in the Kingdom of Afghanistan: Mountstuart Elphinstone and the Afghans,” Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies 3, 1979, pp. 26-43. Idem, “Research Report: Sheikhanzai Pastoral Nomads of Northwest Afghanistan,” Nomadic Peoples 4, 1979, pp. 9-16. Idem, “Segmentary Lineage Theory and Sheikhanzai Practice,” Nomadic Peoples 11, 1982, pp. 17-22. Idem, “Sheikhanzai Nomads and the Afghan State: A Study of Indigenous Authority and Foreign Rule,” in N. Shahrani and R. L. Canfield, eds., Revolutions and Rebellions in Afghanistan: Anthropological Perspectives, Berkeley, 1984, pp. 249-65. Tavernier (London). G. Thaiss, “Unity and Discord: The Symbol of Husayn in Iran,” in C. Adams, ed., Iranian Civilization and Culture, Montreal, 1972, pp. 111-20. Idem, “The Conceptualization of Social Change through Metaphor,” Journal of Asian and African Studies 13, 1978, pp. 1-13. W. Thesiger, “The Hazaras of Central Afghanistan,” Geographical Journal 121, 1955, pp. 312-19. Idem, “The Hazarajat of Afghanistan,” Geographical Magazine 29, 1956, pp. 87-95. Idem, “A Journey in Nuristan,” The Geographical Journal 123, 1957, pp. 457-64. B. Thomas, “The Musandam Peninsula and its People the Shihuh,” Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society 16, 1929, pp. 71-86. C. T. Thompson, “Impetus for Change: The Transformation of Peasant Marketing in Mazandaran,” in K. Farmanfarmian, ed., The Social Sciences and Problems of Development, Princeton, 1976, pp. 226-43. Idem, “Petty traders in Iran,” in Bonine and Keddie, 1981, pp. 259-68. A. Tual, “Variations et usages du voile dans deux villes d’Iran,” Objetes et mondes 11, 1971, pp. 96-116. Idem, “Le Statut féminin et l’usage de la parole,” Stud. Ir. 5, 1976, pp. 115-28. Idem, “Pour une typologie des bijoux de femmes en Iran,” Stud. Ir. 9, 1980, pp. 277-88. J. P. S. Uberoi, “Social Organization of the Tajiks of Andarab Valley, Afghanistan,” Ph.D. diss., Australian National University, 1965. Idem, “District Administration in the Northern Highlands of Afghanistan,” Sociological Bulletin 17, 1968, pp. 65-90. Idem, “District Administration in the Northern Highlands of Afghanistan,” Sociological Bulletin (Delhi) 17, 1968, pp. 65-90. Idem, “Between Oxus and Indus: A Local History of the Frontier 500 BC to 1925 AD,” Indian Horizons “(New Delhi) 22, 1973, pp. 67-83. A. Vambery, Travels in Central Asia: Being the Account of a Journey from Teheran across the Turkoman Desert on the Eastern Shore of the Caspian to Khiva, Bokhara, and Samarkand Performed in the Year 1863, New York, 1865. M. Van Bruinessen, “Nationalismus und religiöser Konflikt: Der kurdische Widerstand im Iran,” in K. Greussing, ed., Religion und Politik in Iran, Frankfurt, 1981, pp. 372-409. Idem, Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan, London, 1992. P. Varjāvand, ʿA. Raḵš-e Ḵoršīd, H. Kešāvarz, H. Golsorḵī, M. Raḥīmī, Bāmedī: ṭāyefa-ī az Baḵtīārī, Tehran, 1346 Š./1967. G. P. Vasil’eva and B. Kh. Karmysheva, eds., Etnograficheskie ocherki Uzbekskogo sel’skogo naseleniya (Ethnographic studies on the Uzbek rural population), Moscow, 1969. P. Vieille, “Iranian Women in Family Alliance and Sexual Politics” in L. Beck and N. Keddie, Women in the Muslim World, Cambridge, Mass., 1978, pp. 451-72. P. Vielle and M. Kotobi, “Familles et unions de familles en Iran,” Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie 51, 1966, pp. 93-104. P. Vieille and I. Nabavi, “Les pêcheries de la Caspienne et les migrations saisonnières du Khal-Khal,” Revue de Géographie de Lyon 45, 1970, pp. 139-62. A. Vinogradov, “Ethnicity, Cultural Discontinuity and Power Brokers in Northern Iraq: The Case of the Shabak,” American Ethnologist 1, 1974, pp. 207-218. S. Vogel, “Deux récits en dialecte Wanetsi du Pasto (conflits ethniques au Baluchistan pakistanais,” Journal Asiatique 276, 1988, pp. 349-69. I. Von Moos and E. Huwyler, “Die
Mungani-Auserwahlte oder Opiumabhangige?” in E. Orywal, ed., Die ethnischen Gruppen Afghanistan: Fall studien zu Gruppenidentität und Intergruppenbeziehungen, Wiesbaden, 1986, pp. 204-22.
W. Weissleder, ed., The Nomadic Alternative: Modes and Models of Interaction in the African-Asian Deserts and Steppes, The Hague, 1978. S. Westphal-Hellbusch and H. Westphal, Zur Geschichte und Kultur der Jat, Berlin, 1968. A. T. Wilson, “The Bakhtiaris,” Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society 13, 1926, pp. 205-25. J. Wolff, Narrative of a Mission to Bokhara in the Years 1843-1845 to Ascertain the Fate of Colonel Stoddart and Captain Conolly, 6th edition, Edinburgh, 1852. H. E. Wulff, The Traditional Crafts of Persia, Cambridge, Mass., 1966. K. Wutt, Pashai: Landschaft, Menschen, Architektur, Graz, 1981. K. Wutt, “Die Pasai in Darra-i Mazar and Wainagal,” in E. Orywal, ed., Die ethnischen Gruppen Afghanistan: Fallstudien zu Gruppenidentität und Intergruppenbeziehungen, Wiesbaden, 1986, pp. 304-8. E. Yarshater, ed., Iran Faces the Seventies, New York, 1971. A.-S. Zadran, “Socio-economic and Legal-political Processes in a Pashtun Village, Southeastern Afghanistan,” Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Buffalo, 1977. Idem, “Kinship, Family and Kinship Terminology,” Afghanistan Quarterly 33, 1980, pp. 45-68. Idem, “Marriage Principles and Customs among the Pushtuns of Afghanistan,” Afghanistan Quarterly 33, 1980, pp. 52-67. K. L. Zadykhina, “Uzbeki,” in Narody Peredney Azii (Peoples of western Asia), Moscow, 9157, pp. 154-66, tr. M. and G. Slobin in G. Grassmuck, L. Adamec and F. Irwin, eds., Afghanistan: Some New Approaches, Ann Arbor, 1969, pp. 11-80. A. Zagarell, The Prehistory of the North East Baḫtiari Mountains, Iran: The Rise of a Highland Way of Life, Wiesbaden, 1982. A. N. Zhilina and T. N. Tomina, Narody sredneĭ Azii: Traditsionnoye zhilishche narodov Sredneĭ Azii XIX—nachalo XX vv. (Peoples of Central Asia: The traditional dwellings of Central Asian peoples in the 19th-early 20th centuries), Moscow, 1993.
Filmography: The ethnographic corpus is enriched by films such as the following. Afghan Exodus, 53 min., A. Singer, 1980. Afghan Nomads: The Maldar, Faces of Change Series, 21 min., N. and L. Dupree, 1974. Afghan Women, Faces of Change Series, 17 min., N. and L. Dupree, 1974. Afghanistan 1930’s, 78 min., L. Dupree, n.d. Amir: An Afghan Refugee Musician’s Life in Peshawar, Pakistan, 52 min., J. Baily, 1986. An Afghan Village: A View of Daily Life in Aq Kupruk, 44 min., Faces of Change Series, N. and L. Dupree, 1974. Ashura at Skardu, 20 min., J. Perry, 1996. Bakhtiari Migration: The Sheep Must Live, 51 min., A. Howard and D. Koff, 1973 (27 min. edited version available). Baking Flat Bread, 4 min., International Film Foundation, 1959. Baking Oven Bread, 11 min., International Film Foundation, 1966. Baking Unleavened Bread, 10 min., International Film Foundation, 1968. Basket Plaiting, 16 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Boy’s Game, 5 min., Mountain Peoples of Central Asia Series, J. Bryan, 1968. Bread Baking, 10 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Bridge Building, 10 min., Mountain Peoples of Central Asia Series, J. Bryan, 10 min., 1968. Building a Bridge, 20 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Buzkashi, Mountain Peoples of Central Asia Series, 9 min., J. Bryan, 1968. Christmas Without Christ, 31 min., L. Dupree, 1978. Construction of Thorn-Hedge Fences, 9 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Cutting Wheat, 5 min., L. Dupree, 1963. The Dervishes of Kurdistan, 52 min., Disappearing World Series, B. Moser, 1987. Driving Cattle to an Alpine Pasture and Sacrifice: Northwest Pakistan, Chitral (Kalash), 20 min., 1965. Equestrian Game “Buzkashi,” 12 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Field Irrigation, 11 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Fluffing and Spinning of Yak Wool, 5 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Forging a Horseshoe and Shoeing, 11 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Four Men’s Dances, 14 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Gathering and Shearing Yaks, 8 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Glassmakers of Herat, 30 min., Benchmark, 1982. Grass: a Nation’s Battle for Life, 20 min., M. C. Cooper and E. B. Schoedsack, 1924 (re-release, 70 min., 1992). Grinding Wheat, 7 min., International Film Found ation, 1968. The K alasha—Rites of String, 52 min., P. Parkes, 1990. The Kirghiz of Afghanistan, 60 min., C. Nairn and N. Shahrani, 1975. Making a Pellet Bow, 16 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Making Black Explosive Powder, 15 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Making Boots, 15 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Making Bread, 11 min., Enc-Cine, 1966. Making Felt, 9 min., International Film Foundation, 1968. Making Gunpowder, 10 min., International Film Foundation, 1968. Men’s Dance with the Pantomimic Interlude, 10 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Men’s Dance, 13 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Milling Grain, 6 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Mock Combat, 5 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Moulding and Casting of Iron, 38 min., L. Dupree, 1963 (38 min.). Mountain Farming, 6 min., 1955. Naim and Jabar, Faces of Change Series, 48 min, N. and L. Dupree, 1974. Nomads of Badakhshan, 27 min., S. Hallet, 1975. Yā żāmen-e āhū (O Dear Savior/Le Protecteur des Gazelles), 22 min., P. Kīmīawī, 1350 Š./1971. The Painted Truck, 28 min., S. Hallet, 1972. The Pathans, 39 min., Disappearing World Series, A. Singer and A. Ahmed, 1980. People of the Wind, 127 min., E. Rogers and A. Howarth, 1978. Ploughing with a Bodyard, 2 min., L. Dupree, 1959. Pottery: Making Vessels, 32 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Shahsavan Nomads of Iran, 30 min., A. Dallalfar and F. Safizadeh, 1984 (footage 1977-1979). Shamanistic Dances, 4 min., 1955. Sheep Shearing and Making of Felt, 18 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Slaughtering a Sheep, 7 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Sons of Hadji Omar, 56 min., A. Balikci, 1982. Spring Cultivation of Fields, 13 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Tajikistan: Three Episodes, 11 min., B. Fitz and S. Kimball, 1993. Tanning an Ibex Hide, 19 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Threshing and Winnowing, 24 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Water-Driven Rice Pounder, 5 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Weaving a Carpet, 20 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Weaving a Rug, 34 min., L. Dupree, 1963. Wheat Cycle, 16 min., Faces of Change Series, 16 N. and L. Dupree, 1974. Winning of Charcoal, 12 min., L. Dupree, 1963.
IGDIR
a Turkic tribe in Persia and Anatolia. It was one of the 24 original Oghuz tribes. Like other tribes that migrated to the Middle East in Saljuqid times, it has become widely scattered.
IGDIR, a Turkic tribe in Persia and Anatolia. It was one of the 24 original Oghuz tribes (Houtsma, p. 225; for discussions of its etymology, see Houtsma, p. 225, and Pelliot, pp. 194-95). Like other tribes that migrated to the Middle East in Saljuqid times, it has become widely scattered.
A group of Igdir settled down in northeastern Persia, and joined the Yomut tribal confederacy. Its population was estimated at 300 families by Charles Edward Yate (p. 280), and at 700 families by Henry Field (p. 221). These Igdir live around Gonbad-e Qābus and the ruins of the old city of Jorjān, some 95 kilometers northeast of Astarābād (ibid.). Because of their distance from any center of governmental authority, they were among the “wildest and most independent” of the Yomut tribes; and they paid no revenue to the Persian state during the nineteenth century (Yate, p. 252). Today, there is still a village by the name of Igdir, 12 kilometers south of Gonbad-e Qābus (Razmārā, Farhang II, p. 34).
Another group of Igdir made its way to Anatolia. In the 16th century, there were as many as 43 villages and other localities by that name there (Sümer, p. 356). In the district of Tarsus, there was an Igdir oba (clan) among the Gökçelü. In the environs of Adana, there were two small oymak (tribes) by that name. Many Igdir also settled down around Kari-Taş, Gülnar and Mut, in the district of Iµç-ݵl. Some of these joined the Boz-Doğan, who lived in the vicinity of Koç-Hisar, in Central Anatolia (ibid., pp. 356-57). Today, there are still 19 Igdir toponyms in Turkey (in the following villayets: Içel, Denizli, Malatya, Kars, Eski-şehir, Tokat, Gümüşhane, Bursa, Ankara, Çankiri, Kastamonu, Samsun, and Ordu; see Gazetteer of Turkey I, p. 687). In the Iranian Western Azerbaijan, near the Turkish frontier, there is also a village named Igdir, 14 kilometers southeast of Urmiya (Razmārā, Farhang IV, p. 65).
A third group of Igdir forms a tira (clan) of the ʿAmala tribe of the Qašqāʾi tribal confederacy in Fārs. In 1958, it comprised some 400 families (Oberling, p. 225). Like other ʿAmala clans, it probably came to Fārs after spending some time in northwestern Persia.
Bibliography
Keith Edward Abbott, Cities and Trade: Consul Abbott on the Economy and Society of Iran, 1847-1866, ed. A. Amanat, London, 1983.
C. Burgett, M. Rockmore, and G. Quinting, Gazetteer of Turkey, 2nd ed., Washington, D.C., 1984.
Henry Field, Contributions to the Anthropology of Iran, Chicago, 1939.
Theodor Houtsma, “Die Ghuzenstämme,” WZKM 2, 1888, pp. 219-33.
Gunnar Jarring, On the Distribution of Turk Tribes in Afghanistan, Lund, 1939.
G. C. Napier, “Extract from a Tour in Khorassan and Notes on the Eastern Alburz Tract,” JRGS 46, 1876, pp. 62-171.
Pierre Oberling, The Qashqāʾi Nomads of Fārs, The Hague, 1974.
Paul Pelliot, Notes sur l’histoire de la Horde d’Or suivies de quelques noms turcs d’hommes et de peuples finissant en “ar,“ Paris, 1949.
Faruk Sümer, Oğuzlar, 2nd ed., Ankara, 1972.
Charles Edward Yate, Khurasan and Sistan, Edinburgh, 1900.
BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI iii. In the Islamic period up to the Mongol invasion
Early Islamic society was essentially a slave-holding one, and it seems likely that Iranian society of the time exhibited two of the types of slavery known elsewhere in the pre-modern Old World—agricultural/industrial slavery and domestic slavery.
iii. In the Islamic Period up to the Mongol Invasion
Early Islamic society was essentially a slave-holding one, and it seems likely that Iranian society of the time exhibited two of the types of slavery known elsewhere in the pre-modern Old World—agricultural/industrial slavery and domestic slavery—certainly together with a third type, whose development from the 3rd/9th century onward seems to have been peculiar to the Islamic world, namely military slavery. For a consideration of this last, see v, below, but it should meanwhile be noted here that the institution of military slavery was to have a special significance for Iranian history in that, from the end of the 4th/10th century onward, dynasties of Turkish military slave origin began to arise within the Iranian lands, starting with the Ghaznavids in eastern Iran and Afghanistan, who stemmed from Sebüktigin, military slave of the Samanids (q.v.), and continuing through the numerous lines of atābaks in later Saljuq Iran to the sultans of Delhi and other provinces of the culturally Iranized realm of Muslim northern India.
In this section, what might be viewed as slavery in a civilian context will alone be treated. That the first type of slavery, the agricultural/industrial, existed in early Islamic Iran has largely to be inferred. One might tentatively assume that the agricultural servitude characteristic of lower Iraq in the first four centuries or so of Islam, involving such nonindigenous races as the black African Zanj and the Indian Zoṭṭ, a slavery fairly well documented for us in the historical sources on account of the periodic rebellions of these despised and exploited groups, was also practiced in the almost identical habitat and climate of the adjacent Iranian province of Ahvāz, where such crops as sugarcane and rice were grown, crops which lent themselves to larger-scale agricultural organization and for which it was not always easy to find free cultivators. Evidence is, however, regrettably sparse for this and for agricultural slavery elsewhere in the oasis economies of Iran, Transoxania, and Ḵᵛārazm. The large estates of the hydraulic society of pre-Arab conquest Ḵᵛārazm, whose existence has been revealed by Soviet archeologists, may well have required serf laborers then and up to the disappearance of the Afrighid Ḵᵛārazmšāhs (see āl-e afrīḡ; S. P. Tolstov, Auf den Spuren der altchoresmischen Kultur, Berlin, 1953, pp. 207ff.). We do have an item of information from Ebn Meskawayh, who (Tajāreb I, p.289; tr. IV, p. 337) mentions that the mamālīk at-tonnāʾ, presumably agricultural slaves of local landowners, helped defend Shiraz against the incoming Daylamite troops of ʿAlī b. Būya (the later ʿEmād-al-Dawla) in 322/934.
Domestic slavery in Iran was of the kind familiar in the rest of the Islamic world at that time. Slaves were used as domestic servants and attendants, including in the women’s quarters or harem. For this last function, eunuchs were of course preferred, or if intact males were used, then it was recommended that they should be dark-skinned, physically unprepossessing, and as a result unattractive to women (thus according to Kaykāvūs b. Eskandar, Qābūs-nāma, ed. Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī, 3rd ed., Tehran, 1364 Š./1985, p. 114; tr. R. Levy, A Mirror for Princes, London, 1951, p. 102). The total social and physical inferiority of the eunuch also meant that in pre-Saljuq times he might on occasion be employed in the office of market inspector or moḥtaseb, since he had no respect for anyone and no obligations toward them (Neẓām-al-Molk, Sīāsat-nāma, chap. VI, ed. M. M. Qazvīnī and M. M. Čahārdehī, Tehran, 1334 Š./1956, p. 56; tr. H. Darke, The Book of Government or Rules for Kings, London, 1960, p. 47). Slave girls were favored as concubines, and certain of the wives of ʿAbbasid caliphs who gave birth to princes and future caliphs, being of the status of omm walad, are mentioned as being Iranian, e.g., Marājel, the concubine of Hārūn-al-Rašīd, said to be from Bāḏḡīs in northwestern Afghanistan, and the mother of the future caliph al-Maʾmūn, born in 170/787 (Ebn Qotayba Dīnavarī, Maʿāref, ed. T. ʿOkkāša, Cairo, 1960, pp. 383, 387; Yaʿqūbī, Taʾrīḵ II, p. 538; Ṭabarī, III, p. 758); and also Māreda, born in Kūfa but of Sogdian stock, slave of Hārūn al-Rašīd, who bore him the future caliph al-Moʿtaṣem, born in 179/795 or 180/796 (Ṭabarī, III, pp. 758, 1329; N. Abbott, Two Queens of Baghdad, Chicago, 1946, pp. 141-42). Slave girls were also trained for use as singers and dancers, and might be found in the majāles or court sessions of governors in Iran like those of the Taherids (q.v.) at Nīšāpūr in the 3rd/9th century.
The characteristics of various types of slave and the need for the careful purchaser to keep in mind his specific needs when bargaining for a slave are well set forth in the special chapter of Kaykāvūs’s Qābūs-nāma on the buying of slaves (chap. 23, pp. 111-19; tr. pp. 99-108). The desiderata for harem attendants have been mentioned above; also discussed in detail by Kaykāvūs are the desiderata regarding slaves to be employed in secretarial and financial duties, as musicians, as soldiers, as tenders of farm animals and horses, and as domestics and cooks.
Concerning the provenance of slaves in Iran, we have a reasonable amount of information. In early Islamic times, parts of Iran itself remained unislamized, and these infidel regions could be raided for slaves. This was the case with Daylam in northwestern Iran up to the time of the appearance there of the ʿAlid dāʿī Ḥasan b. Zayd b. Moḥammad (second half of the 3rd/9th century; Eṣṭaḵrī, p. 205; Ebn Ḥawqal, p. 377, tr. Kramers, p. 366); while slaves were captured from the mountainous region of Ḡūr in central Afghanistan, a pagan enclave there till the early Ghaznavid period (Ḥodūd-al-ʿālam, tr. Minorsky, pp. 109-10; C. E. Bosworth, “The Early Islamic History of Ghūr,” Central Asian Journal 6, 1961, p. 122; repr. in The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia, London, 1977, chap. 9). But it was above all the Turks who, from their hardy steppe background, were regarded as supremely suitable for military service and were accordingly praised for this aptitude by authors like the 3rd/9th century author Jāḥeẓ in his epistle on the excellences of the Turks (Resāla fī manāqeb al-Tork wa ʿāmmat jond al-ḵelāfa, ed. G. van Vloten in Tria opuscula auctore . . . al-Djahiz, Leiden, 1903, pp. 1-56, tr. C. T. Harley-Walker, “Jahiz of Basra to al-Fath ibn Khaqan on the “Exploits of the Turks and the Army of the Khalifate in General”,” JRAS, 1915, pp. 631-97; analyzed by F. Gabrieli, in Rivista degli studi orientali 32, 1957, pp. 477-83). But their loyalty and single-minded devotion to their masters—since they were, like all slaves brought from distant lands, déracinés, and with no ties or vested interests within their new home country—made them equally favored for palace and domestic service. The Turkish slave cupbearer or sāqī isa familiar figure in Persian poetry, and such personalities as Sultan Maḥmūd of Ḡazna’s cupbearer and favorite Ayāz b. Aymaq (q.v.) not only played what seems to have been at the time a certain political role at the Ghaznavid court but in later ages became elaborated into a significant literary figure (see, e.g., G. Spiess, Maḥmūd von Ġazna bei Farīduʾd-dīn ʿAṭṭār, Basel, 1959, pp. 46-95). Of course, beardless boys and young men like Ayāz must often have been used by their masters as catamites.
Such Turkish slaves entered Iran through the two land corridors connecting the lands of ancient Middle Eastern civilization with the inner Asian and eastern European steppes, namely a northwestern corridor through southern Russia and the Caucasus into Azerbaijan, and a northeastern one through Ḵᵛārazm and Transoxania into Khorasan. Slaves came into the Iranian world as captives of war from the Arab campaigns in the Caucasus against the Ḵazars (q.v.) and from the campaigns in central Asia against the local Iranian peoples and the Turks of the steppes beyond, from the end of the lst/7th century onward. Thus Naršaḵī (p. 62, tr. R. N. Frye, pp. 44-45) mentions how in 87/706 the Arab governor Qotayba b. Moslem (q.v.) slew all the males in the town of Baykand in Sogdia and enslaved all the women and children. Eighty hostages of noble birth taken from the ḵātūn or queen of Bukhara in 56/676 by the governor of Khorasan Saʿīd b. ʿOṯmān were transported, against Saʿīd’s pledge to the contrary, to Medina and set to work there as agricultural slaves, a process which was so demeaning for them that, one day, they all entered Saʿīd’s house, killed him, and then committed mass suicide (Naršaḵī, pp. 54, 56-57, tr. pp. 40-41; cf. H. A. R. Gibb, The Arab Conquests in Central Asia, London, 1923, pp. 19-20). Subsequently, Turkish slaves captured in the course of Muslim raids into infidel territory (dār al-ḥarb)were supplemented by a steady flow of Turks brought to slave markets in such places as Darband, Samarqand, Bukhara, Kīš, and Naḵšab (Nasaf), victims of internecine Turkish warfare in the steppes (as was the case of Sebüktigin) or even deliberately sold by their own families.
The Samanid amirate in Khorasan and Transoxania dominated the corridor into northeastern Iran during the 3rd-4th/9th-10th centuries, and owed much of its economic prosperity, stressed by contemporary geographers, to the important trade in Turkish slaves. Slaves regularly formed a part of the land tax of Khorasan sent by governors there like the Taherids to Baghdad and of the tribute forwarded to the caliphs by the Samanids from Transoxania and by the Saffarid brothers Yaʿqūb and ʿAmr b. Layṯ from their conquests in eastern Afghanistan and the fringes of India. The geographer Maqdesī ([Moqaddasī] ca. 375/985) states that in his time the annual levy (ḵarāj) of Khorasan included, among other things, 1,020 slaves. The Samanid amirs regulated the transit trade in slaves across their territories, requiring a license (jawāz) for each slave boy and a fee of 70-100 dirhams, the same fee but no license for each slave girl, and a lesser fee, 20-30 dirhams, for each mature woman (pp. 340-41). Commenting on the superlativeness of Turkish slaves, Maqdesī’s near-contemporary Ebn Ḥawqal states that he had more than once seen a slave sold in Khorasan for as much as 3,000 dinars (p. 353, tr. p. 346); the average rate for a Turkish slave in Taherid times was, however, around 300 dirhams (Barthold, Turkestan2, p.240).
For northwestern Iran, a similar stream of slaves was imported from the Caucasus and beyond, comprising Turks, again through the intermediary of the Ḵazars, but also non-Turkish peoples of the Caucasus and eastern Europe such as the Alans, the Rūs, and the Ṣaqāleba (these peoples and their characteristics as slaves are mentioned by Kaykāvūs; the fair-skinned Ṣaqāleba probably included, as well as Slavs, Finno-Ugrian peoples of eastern Russia like the Burṭās or Mordvins; cf. A. Z. V. Togan, “Die Schwerter der Germanen, nach arabischen Berichten des 9-11. Jts.,” ZDMG 90, 1936, p. 22). The endemic ḡazw conducted by the Muslims in the Caucasus region must also have brought in a steady flow of Christians as slaves, comprising Greeks, Armenians, and Georgians, the first two groups again mentioned by Kaykāvūs (Qābūs-nāma, pp. 115-16, tr. p. 104). Illustrating the volume of trade passing through the northwestern corridor into Iran, Ebn Ḥawqal, p. 353, tr. p. 346, mentions that the tax farm (moqāṭaʿa)of the customs post at Ḵūnaj on the road running from Ardabīl in Azerbaijan to Zanjān in Jebāl was generally rented out annually for 100,000 dinars, in some years going up to one million dirhams; the dues (lawāzem)levied here included those on the transit of slaves.
Finally, we should note that the Saffarids’ campaigns in eastern Afghanistan and then the Ghaznavids’ ones into the plains of northern India opened up the Indian world as a source of slave manpower, for the eastern Iranian lands at least. A single campaign of Maḥmūd of Ḡazna in 409/1018, that to Qanawj in the Ganges valley, yielded 53,000 captives, causing the price of slaves in the market at Ḡazna to fall as low as 2-10 dirhams a head (C. E. Bosworth, Ghaznavids, p.102); and by the end of the 5th/11th. century, Indian slaves were sufficiently known in Iran at large for Kaykāvūs to discuss the various aptitudes of different Indian social groups and castes for employment as slaves (Qābūs-nāma, p.116; tr. pp. 104-05).
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